ALGECIRAS-ALGERIA. ALGECIRAS, or ALGEZIRAS, a town in Spain, in the province of Cadiz, on the Gulf of Gibraltar. Its harbour is bad, but it possesses a good dock, and the inhabitants are supplied with fine aqueducts. The citadel is in a very dilapidated condition, and the trade in corn and brandy is no longer important. The place, however, which is pleasantly situated, has a picturesque appearance. It was the first town in Spain taken by the Moors (713), in whose possession it remained for 7 centuries; but in 1344, after a siege of 20 months, it was retaken by the brave Alfonso XI., king of Castile. It is said that crusaders from all parts of Europe were present at this siege, which was the siege of the age, and is spoken of as such. Edward III. of England purposed coming in person to the assistance of the Spanish monarch, whom he greatly admired. Alfonso destroyed the old Moorish town; the modern one was built by Charles III. in 1760. On the 6th of June 1801, between Algeciras and Tarifa, the English admiral Saumarez attacked the combined French and Spanish fleets under Rearadmiral Luinois. He was defeated, but renewed the engagement a few days after, and gained a complete victory. A. is 5 miles from Gibraltar, across the bay or gulf, and 10 round by land. Pop. 11,500. solano. Its mineral wealth is considerable; iron, lead, copper, and manganese are found. The marble of Numidia was in requisition in ancient times. Extensive forests of oaks, cedars, pines, and pistachionut trees cover large portions of the country, and furnish an abundant supply of timber and resin. The cereals and the olive are cultivated in the Tell; and the oases of Sahara are famed for their dates. The domestic animals of A. are the ox, the sheep, the goat, and the camel; but the once noble race of Numidian horses is degenerated. The population is composed of various elements. Besides Europeans, there are Kabyles and Arabs, who compose the bulk of the people; also Moors, Negroes, and Jews. Language.-Four languages are spoken in A. The Berber, the Arabic, the Turkish, and the Negro dialects. The Berber, which is the most ancient of all, has a variety of dialects, and is spoken by all the Kabyle tribes. It possesses no literature written in its own alphabet, Arabic characters alone being used. The Arabic is of course an importation from the East, and has borrowed expressions and idioms from the various native languages with which it came into contact; but its differences are comparatively slight. The Koran is the great bond of union. The Turkish, since the French conquest, has become almost extinct. The Negro dialects are of little consequence. ALGERIA (in French, ALGÉRIE), a country on the north coast of Africa, which was a sub- History. In the most ancient times we find the ordinate part of the Turkish Empire till 1830, Numidians settled in the eastern part of the regency, and is now a French colony. It lies between 2° 8' and the Moors (or Mauri) in the west. Under the W. long. and 8° 32′ E. long. It is bounded on the Romans, the former was included in the province of north by the Mediterranean, on the east by Tunis, Africa, while the latter was called Mauritania Cæsaron the south by Sahara, and on the west by Marocco. iensis. Like the rest of North Africa, it had then The French have extended their dominions more reached its highest prosperity. It had numerous than 200 miles into the interior, but those of the cities, which were principally Roman colonies. But deys the former rulers of A.-comprehended terri- its conquest by the Vandals, under the famous tories lying nearly twice as far south. The area of Genseric about 440, threw it back into a state of A., now that the southern limit is defined, is about barbarism, from which it only partially recovered 173,000 sq. miles; and the pop. 2,904,014, includ- after the Mohammedan immigrants had estabing 217,990 Europeans. The chief towns are Algiers, lished their dominion. About the year 935, the Bona, Constantine, and Tlemzen. Upwards of city, Al-Jezira, i. e., the island, and later Al-Gazie, 5,000,000 acres are under cultivation. Physically, i. e., the warlike, now called Algiers, was built by A. forms a part of the northern border of the great an Arabian prince, Zeiri, whose successors ruled the plateau of North Africa, which here rises from land till 1148, after which it was governed by the the sea in three terraces. The Atlas Mountains Almohades (q.v.) till 1269. It was then split up into run parallel to the coast-line. Behind these, a vast many small territories. In 1492, the Moors and tract of heathy plains, called the Sebkhas, interspersed Jews who had been driven out of Spain, settled in with salt-lakes, stretches southwards, until bounded | A., and began to revenge themselves on their perseby a second chain of mountains of various heights; cutors by piracy. Ferdinand, the Spanish monarch, beyond which, again, lies the great desert of Sahara, attacked them on this account, took the city of extending to the banks of the Niger. The plains Algiers in 1509, and erected fortifications on the and valleys which open out towards the sea in the island which forms its harbour. One of the Algerine north of A., such as those round Bona, Algiers, princes, the Emir of Metidja, whose territories were Oran, &c., are extremely fertile, abound in wood and threatened by the Spaniards, now invited to his water, consist mostly of a calcareous soil, and are assistance the Greek renegade, Horuk or Harude well adapted for agriculture. They form the Tell, Barbarossa, who had made himself famous as a which was once one of the granaries of Italy. In Turkish pirate chief. This laid the foundation strong contrast to these are the Sebkhas or lesser of the Turkish dominion; for when Barbarossa deserts, covered with herbs and brushwood, but arrived in 1516, he treacherously turned his corsair almost destitute of fresh water, except where here bands against the emir, whom he murdered, and and there they are interrupted by an oasis. The then made himself Sultan of Algiers. His subsemost southern part of the country beyond the Atlas quent successes alarmed the Spaniards, who marched partakes of the nature of the Sahara, but contains an army against him from Óran. Barbarossa was oases covered with palm-trees, and well peopled. defeated in many encounters, and, at last, being This is a part of the 'date-country,' or 'Blad-el- taken prisoner, was beheaded in 1518. His brother Djerid.' There are no rivers of any importance in was then chosen sultan. He put himself under the the entire colony, nothing beyond mere coast-protection of the Ottoman court, by the help of streams, which rise in the neighbouring Atlas. The a Turkish army drove the Spaniards out of the largest is the Shelif, about 230 miles in length. With respect to the climate, the heat in the Tell is sometimes very great. On the coast it is mitigated by the sea-breeze; and among the high mountains of the interior, the winters are even cold. The average temperature of Algiers is about 63° F. A. is not unfrequently visited by the simoom, or hot wind, called by the Italians sirocco, and by the Spaniards country, and established that system of military despotism and piracy which lasted till 1830, and which sunk A. into a state of ruinous degradation. In 1541, the Emperor Charles V. made a bold attempt to crush this nation of corsairs. He landed in A. with a fleet of 370 ships, and 30,000 men; but a fearful storm, accompanied by earthquakes and water-spouts, destroyed the greater portion of the reprisals. Emboldened by success, the Algerines pushed their piratical expeditions even beyond the Straits of Gibraltar. In the year 1600, the Turkish janissaries of Algiers obtained from the Constantinopolitan court the right to choose a dey from among themselves, who should share the power with the pacha appointed by the Sultan, and be their commander-in-chief. The result of this divided authority was internal strife and confusion. Nevertheless, the insolence of the Algerines at sea increased. They attacked even the coasts of Provence, compelling Louis XIV. to chastise them thrice; which he did, however, with very little effect. An incident occurred during the first bombardment of Algiers by the French fleet in 1682, which illustrates the reckless ferocity of these corsairs. By way of answer to the cannonading of his enemies, the dey caused the French consul, Vacher, to be shot off from the mouth of a mortar! After the third bombardment in 1687, the dey scornfully inquired of the French how much money the burning of Algiers had cost their master, and on being told, coolly replied that he would have done it himself for half the sum, and spared their king the trouble.' No more decisive result followed the attack of Admiral Blake in 1655, nor of the English and Dutch fleets in 1669 and 1670; yet the English were the first to form treaties with the Algerines. In 1708, the dey, Ibrahim, made himself master of Oran; and his successor, Baba-Ali, succeeded in effecting the virtual emancipation of the country from the dominion of the Porte. He banished the Turkish pacha; craftily persuaded the Sultan of Turkey to leave the power solely in his hands; carried on war, and concluded peace at his own pleasure, and paid no more tribute. A. was now ruled by a military oligarchy, at the head of which stood the dey, and after him the powerful Turkish militia, recruited from Constantinople and Smyrna, because their children by native mothers could not enjoy the same privileges as themselves. Besides these, there was a divan, or council of state, chosen from the sixty principal civil functionaries. The internal history of the country henceforth presents nothing but a bloody series of seraglio revolutions, caused by the lawless janissaries, who permitted few of the deys to die a natural death. In the year 1775, Spain undertook her last great expedition against A., with 44 ships of war, 340 transports, and 25,000 soldiers. This, however, was as singularly unfortunate as all her previous ones. Everything went wrong, and the Spaniards had to re-embark as speedily as possible, leaving behind them 1800 wounded, and all their artillery. Thus A. continued to defy the greater Christian powers, and to enforce tribute from the lesser. During the French Revolution, and the time of the Empire, its piracies were much diminished in consequence of the presence of powerful fleets in the Mediterranean Sea; but at the close of the war, they were recommenced as vigorously as ever. This brought down upon the nation of corsairs' the vengeance of the Christian powers. The Americans took the lead, attacked the Algerine fleet off Carthagena, on the 20th June 1815; defeated it, and compelled the dey to acknowledge the inviolability of the American flag. About the same time, the English admiral, Lord Exmouth, extorted from the other states of Barbary the recognition of an international law respecting the treatment of prisoners. A. alone refused to consent to it; and after a delay of six weeks, the English and Dutch fleets, under the command of Lord Exmouth, fiercely bombarded the capital. The batteries of the pirates were soon silenced; and in a few hours the half of the city lay in ruins; its naval force and its magazines being all destroyed. The dey, an ignorant and obstinate barbarian, still wished to protract the fight, but his soldiery forced him to yield, and a treaty was concluded (1816), by which all Christian slaves were released without ransom (the number was 1211), and a promise was given that both piracy and Christian slavery should cease for ever. But nothing ALGERIA. The could keep these wretches from piracy. As early After the revolution of July, Marshal Bourmont as 1817, they ventured as far as the North Sea, and resigned, and General Clausel was appointed his seized all ships in their course not belonging to any successor. The latter, who was a prompt and of the powers who sent them tribute or presents, as vigorous man, set about subduing the country, and was done by Sweden, Denmark, Portugal, Spain, giving it a regular government. His predecessor Naples, Tuscany, and Sardinia. Nor did even treaties had_committed a great mistake in driving out avail to protect European vessels at all times. The the Turks, who might have been usefully employed Spanish, the Papal, and, in particular, the German ship-in subordinate functions of authority. After their ping, suffered severely; while the dey mocked by his banishment, the Kabyles and Bedouins, believing insolent replies the remonstrances addressed to him. themselves emancipated from all subjection, and Meanwhile, the internal condition of A. continued stimulated by intense fanaticism against the new to present the spectacle of a cruel prætorian despot- conquerors, rose in rebellion, or rather commenced ism. In the year 1817, the power of the janissaries a series of petty struggles, which obstructed the was greatly weakened by the skilful tactics of the dey, colonisation of A. for many years, and which cannot Ali. Upon his death, which was occasioned by the be said to have altogether ceased even yet. The plague in the following year, Hussein was chosen in imposition of French laws and institutions was his stead, under whom the Moslem dominion was made not in the wisest spirit, most of the old terminated by a conflict with France. The causes of Turkish regulations being summarily abrogated. this conflict were various. A French trading-brig Besides this, the natives were wounded in their was plundered in Bona in 1818; the dwelling of the most susceptible point. Their mosques and buryingFrench consul was attacked in 1823; Roman ships grounds were frequently desecrated and destroyed; sailing under the protection of the French flag were and Clausel, whose vigour was more remarkseized; and even French ships were detained and able than his justice or prudence, confiscatedplundered. But the chief cause of the quarrel was in direct contradiction to the very words of the a dispute about the payment of a debt incurred by capitulation-all the immovable property of the the French government to two Jewish merchants of deys, and other exiled Turks, and of the townAlgiers at the time of the expedition to Egypt. This ships, besides various religious institutions. debt was fixed at seven millions of francs; four and effect of these political crimes was instant. The a half millions were immediately paid; the rest was entire provinces determined obstinately to resist; reserved until the counter-claims of certain French some even of the provincial rulers who had precreditors should be decided in the French law-courts. viously submitted, now appeared in arms again. For three years the lawsuit dragged its slow length Clausel was compelled to undertake a military along, till the dey became impatient being himself expedition against the refractory beys; but his a principal creditor of the Jewish-Algerine house- uncertain successes only inflamed the hatred and and angrily demanded payment from the King of patriotism of the Kabyles and Arabs, who opposed France. To his letter no answer was returned. him energetically. A young emir at last appeared The feast of Beiram occurring soon after, when it on the scene, Abd-el-Kader (q. v.), who soon bewas customary for the dey to receive all the consuls came the rallying-point of the Jad ('holy war'), publicly, he asked the French consul why his master which the Marabouts had begun to preach. Under had remained silent. The latter haughtily replied these circumstances, it became impossible for Clausel that 'a king of France could not condescend to cor- to carry out his scheme of colonisation, and only respond with a dey of Algiers.' Upon this, the dey a reckless speculation in land took place, which struck him on the face, and fiercely abused his sove- was in every way injurious. To strengthen his reign. In consequence of this insult, a French squad-position, the French general, whose army was now ron was sent to Algiers, which received the consul greatly reduced, made a treaty with the Bey of on board, and blockaded the city (12th June 1827). Tunis; but the home-government disapproving of Six days after, the dey caused the French coral- it, he was recalled in consequence. His successor, fisheries at Bona to be destroyed. For three years the General Berthezène, having achieved nothing but blockade was listlessly carried on; but in April 1830, defeat and disgrace in spite of his cruelties, was during the ministry of Polignac, a warlike manifesto also speedily recalled, and Lieutenant-general the appeared; and a month later, a fleet sailed for the Duke of Rovigo appointed to the command. African coast, consisting of 100 ships of war, and arrived in Algiers on the 25th of December 1831, 357 transports, having on board an army of 37,000 and established a most severe and relentless system. infantry, 4000 cavalry, and a proportionate number He scrupled not to perpetrate the most arbitrary acts, of artillery, under the command of Lieutenant- cruelties, and treacheries. His two most remarkable general Bourmont. The landing was effected under actions were, first, the complete annihilation of the trifling opposition. A perpetual skirmishing then whole Arab tribe El-Uffia, when even old men, took place previous to the bombardment of Algiers, women, and children were massacred during the which commenced on the 4th July. Next day, a night, on account of a robbery committed by some of capitulation was agreed to. The Turkish soldiers the members of the tribe; second, the execution of marched out for such were the conditions-with two Arab chiefs who were hostile to him, and whom their families and private possessions, and the he had treacherously allured into the city by the French took possession of the place. Fifteen hundred written promise of a safe-conduct. Such monstrous guns, 17 ships of war, and 50,000,000 francs fell proceedings fired the entire nation. The most into their hands as spoil. The dey retired to Port peaceful tribes flew to arms, and the French were Mahon, with his private property and a train of attacked on all sides. The Emperor of Marocco, 118 persons, while the greater number of the Turkish who secretly fomented the strife, and even medijanissaries were conveyed to Asia Minor. The tated the conquest of Oran, assisted the fierce and conduct of the French soldiery, however, it must be impetuous Abd-el-Kader in his designs. The health confessed, tarnished the glory of their conquest. of the duke now declined. He returned to France They went about plundering remorselessly the in March 1833, and the administration of affairs was beautiful villas and gardens in the neighbourhood provisionally intrusted to General Avizard, who of Algiers, as well as the ancient valuables and gained some credit by establishing the Bureau works of art; thus exciting a universal spirit of Arabe. After the death of the duke, General hostility in the natives, who kept up an incessant Voirol, a man exactly the reverse of his prede guerilla warfare outside the capital. cessor, was made interim commander-in-chief. His He of war. ALGERIA. efforts were more directed to promote the material interests of the colony, than to extend the power of France. He met with little opposition in the province of Algiers, and in the eastern districts; but, on the other hand, the war raged fiercely in the west, where Abd-el-Kader had either gained over or subdued all the tribes between Mascara and the sea. At length a treaty was effected with him, in which he pledged himself to make peace, and to deliver up all his prisoners. In return, he received a monopoly of the corn-trade, and the right to buy arms and ammunition in the French ports. Towards the end of 1834, the French government, having resolved to retain permanent possession of the colony, organised its administration anew, placing the supreme power, both civil and military, in the hands of a governorgeneral, who received his orders from the minister General Drouet d'Erlon was the first appointed to this high dignity. Under him there were a commander of the troops, a commander of the naval force, a military intendant, a civil intendant, and a director of finance. The administration of justice was also regulated by the erection of many tribunals. Frenchmen and foreigners were to be subject to French laws, but the natives to their own. Moreover, the old Algerine courts of justice were still to be kept up. D'Erlon apparently desired, at first, to occupy himself with the internal administration of the regency, and, in truth, deserved much credit for the introduction of French municipal institutions, and the French system of education and police arrangements; but a disgraceful defeat suffered by the French army at Makta, on an expedition against Abd-el-Kader, who had secretly broken the treaty, caused the recall both of the officer in command and of D'Erlon himself. Clausel was now sent back to A. with the title of marshal. He arrived on the 10th of August 1835, his first anxiety being to wipe away the disgrace of the defeat at Makta. About three months after, he marched out at the head of 11,000 men, to attack Mascara, the centre of Abd-el-Kader's power: he had to fight many petty battles on his way, but was always successful. On reaching Mascara, he resolved to set it on fire, which he did on the 8th December, and then commenced his retreat, in which his army suffered severely from bad weather, and from perpetual harassments by the enemy. Abd-el-Kader was soon more powerful than ever, and General Bugeaud had to be sent out from France with reinforcements; but nothing came of this save a few fruitless victories over Abd-el-Kader, which did the latter no real harm. Bugeaud was at length compelled to make peace on the 30th May 1837. Abd-el-Kader recognised the sovereignty of France over the regency: he received, in return, the government of the provinces of Oran, Titeri, and Algiers, with the exception of the cities of Oran, Arzeu, Masagran, Mostaganem, Algiers, Blidah and Koleah, Sahel (or the seacoast'), and the plain of Metidja. In exchange for the city of Tlemzen, he delivered to the French army 60,000 sacks of corn, and 5000 oxen: he was likewise permitted to buy arms and ammunition in France. In February 1837, Marshal Clausel was recalled, and Lieutenant-general Damrémont succeeded him. The condition of the colony was at this moment desperate, for the disgraces which followed the rash and even reckless measures of Clausel had everywhere lowered the prestige of the French army. The duty of the new governorgeneral was clear, but difficult: he had to wipe out the stain which attached to the honour of his soldiery, and to re-create the conviction of their superiority. He first attacked the Kabyles of the province of Algiers, and chastised them with considerable severity, and then commenced his great work of taking Constantine, from which his predecessor had been compelled ignominiously to retire. In the month of May, with an army of 12,000 disciplined troops, besides Zuavi (originally light infantry raised among the natives), Bataillons d'Afrique (convict-battalions at first), the Tirailleurs d'Afrique, and the Chasseurs d'Afrique, as well as the Spahis (a cavalry corps composed of native soldiers commanded by French officers), Damrémont marched to the attack of Constantine, and in spite of fearful weather, succeeded in storming the city on the 13th. This victory laid the foundation for the entire subjugation of the province of Constantine, which was completed in the course of the two following years without any great effort. On December 1, 1837, General Valée was appointed governor-general in the stead of Damrémont, who had fallen at the storming of Constantine. He, like the others, misunderstood the character of Abd-el-Kader when he considered it possible for him to remain quiet. New treaties were made, which only delayed hostilities. Meanwhile, the work of colonisation went on in spite of numerous obstacles. The province of Constantine was much improved by the building of towns and the making of roads; but suddenly, in October 1839, Abd-elKader, whose power had now become formidable to an unprecedented extent, violated the treaty on an insignificant pretext, and fell upon the unprepared French with an overwhelming force. The European settlements in the open plain were attacked and laid waste, bodies of French troops were surprised on their march and cut to pieces, small outposts and encampments were taken in a moment, and by the 24th of November, the dominion of the French was confined to the fortified cities and camps. Even the settlements in the plain of Metidja were lost. Forty thousand Arabs swept over it, and threatened Algiers itself. This state of things demanded energetic measures. The spring campaign was vigorously opened on both sides: everywhere the French gained splendid successes; while the heroic defence of the fort of Masagran, near Mostaganem (garrisoned by only 123 men), against from 12,000 to 15,000 Arabs, who stormed it incessantly, and with the utmost fury, for three days, raised the prestige of the invaders higher than ever. Still, however, nothing was really accomplished. After repeated bloody defeats, the native tribes again rushed to arms, swept the plains, and rendered life insecure at the very gates of Algiers. The only thing of any practical importance which took place during the whole year, was the beginning of the circumvallation by which the fertile plain of Metidja was to be secured against the hostile incursions of the Arabs. Marshal Valée was now recalled, and Lieutenantgeneral Bugeaud appointed his successor. The latter arrived at Algiers on February 22, 1841, and adopted a new system, which was completely successful. A brave, inexorable, and unscrupulous man, he resolved to employ any and every means for the attainment of his purpose. He wearied out the enemy by incessant razzias (predatory excursions) against individual tribes, corrupted them (not a difficult thing to do) by all the arts of bribery, and on special occasions undertook great expeditions to annihilate the regular power of Abd-el-Kader, whose strong defensive positions he destroyed, and whose authority he spared no pains to undermine. The French army was raised to 80,000 or 100,000 men. Its operations were carried on from three principal points. Victory followed Bugeaud wherever he went. He relieved and victualled hard-pressed garrisons; intimidated the 141 ALGERIA. surrounding country; penetrated to Tekedempt-the of thirty members. In 1863, the Emperor Napoleon very stronghold of Abd-el-Kader himself-which announced that he was willing to give the colony a he laid in ashes; marched thence to Mascara, which was also taken; and on all sides received the submission of the terrified Arabs. Even the hottest period of the summer was made use of. Bugeaud bribed and seduced from their allegiance those Arabs who were under the sway of Abd-el-Kader. The autumn campaign was for the time decisive. Saida, the last fortress belonging to the gallant emir, was utterly destroyed, and now almost the entire country was subdued. Abd-el-Kader retired into Marocco, where he raised a new army, for his old one had been completely annihilated. He was, however, defeated by General Bedeau, and again compelled to retreat into Marocco, from which, however, he issued a second time, in the summer of 1842, and contrived to maintain a fierce but desultory warfare, for two or three years, aided by the Sultan of Marocco. At last, however, deserted by most of his followers, pursued by his late ally, and, in fact, hemmed in on all sides, he was forced to surrender to General Lamoricière, at the close of December 1847. See ABD-EL-KADER. new constitution, with a Chamber of Representatives for provincial affairs: he also addressed a letter to the governor-general, in which he explained that A. was no colony in the strict sense of the word, but an Arabian kingdom; and that the natives had the same right to protection as the colonists. In 1864, however, strife again arose between the colonists and the Arabs; and it was only after several engagements, during the months of April and May, that peace was restored by the submission of the conquered tribes. Pélissier having died in May 1864, Marshal MacMahon was appointed to succeed him. In the following year the emperor himself made a journey to A., and, on March 5, issued a proclamation, in which, although explaining to the Arabs that A. must continue to be united to France, he promised to maintain their nationality; and at the same time gave them assurance that they should always remain in undisturbed possession of their territories. Yet these and other measures for conciliating the Arabs were all in vain; for, shortly after the emperor's return to France, insurrections The revolution of February 1848, somewhat dis- broke out in the province of Oran and elsewhere. turbed the progress of conquest and subjugation in Si-Hamed, a native chief, with 12,000 horsemen at A. That superb race of mountaineers, the Kabyles, his command, began to harrass those tribes which descendants of the ancient Numidians, and possessed remained in submission, until he was routed by of the same fiery and dauntless spirit, broke out into Colonel Colomb of Geryville, and forced to escape a new insurrection, which, however, was speedily into Sahara: after which, in the beginning of 1867, quelled. The National Assembly now offered to the two expeditions, led by Colomb and Souis, succeeded European population of A. to incorporate the country in reducing to submission the other tribes which with the republic of France, and to grant it all had revolted. In 1867 and 1868, a severe and the accompanying political privileges of a French general famine checked the military enterprises province; but intelligent men of all parties acknow- of the Arabs; and there was peace till 1870, when, ledged the uselessness and danger of this step. It the Franco-Prussian war having begun, the emperor was, therefore, simply declared to be a permanent found it necessary to withdraw to Europe the possession of the republic. Four deputies from the greater part of the forces in Africa. MacMahon's colony were permitted to take a part in all discus- place was then taken by General Durieu, as sions in the National Assembly on Algerian affairs. interim governor-general; and the natives began to Meanwhile, the work of conquest, colonisation, and, entertain hopes of freeing themselves from the yoke in some respects, civilisation went on. The French of France. Movements were begun in the provinces troops penetrated into the far south, almost to the of Constantine and Oran, which it required all Gen borders of Sahara, sternly reducing to obedience the eral Durieu's vigilance and activity to hold in check. desert tribes, who manifested a not unnatural After this, again, some disorder arose among the antipathy to these inroads, and in some cases fiercely colonists themselves, who strongly desired the aboliresisted the invaders. Various tribes of the Kabyles, tion of the military government-a change which too, opposed every attempt at organised taxation, the new republican government at Paris soon gratiand the imposition of civilised discipline; the result fied them by effecting. To Durieu's place was of which patriotic obstinacy was, a new campaign appointed a civil governor, and under him prefects against them by the French general, Bugia. Fortune for each of the three provinces. A council was again declared for the invaders; but the most formed-composed of the prefects, archbishop, comalarming insurrection was that excited by the Cherif mander of the army, and other members appointed Bou-zian, who fled for freedom to Zaatcha in the by the French government-with which, in all oases. The French pursued him thither; but were important cases, the governor has to take counsel. beaten, and had to retreat. Some months after, The territory of the Sahara and adjoining districts they returned, largely reinforced, and in spite of the remain under exclusively military rule. broad belt of palm-trees which hindered their operations, and the wild and strenuous heroism of the besieged, the place was stormed and destroyed. The defenders all perished. The French troops still stationed in A. consist of one corps d'armée,' numbering 60,000. It is said that the possession of A. has cost France the lives of,150,000 men, besides £120,000,000 in money. The revenue of A. is derived chiefly from indirect taxes, licenses, and customs duties on imports. In 1870, it amounted to 45,360,859 francs, and the expenditure to 51,762,316 francs. The cost of maintaining the army, however, the outlay for public works, and other large sums disbursed-amounting in 1873 to 24,496,109 francs-are not included in the expenditure, being provided out of the French budget. In 1853-1854, and again in 1856-1857, expeditions were organised against the Kabyles; though not altogether with the will of the colonists, who could not but recognise the great intelligence and industry displayed by that highland race. The struggle was sanguinary and barbarous on both sides, but the French at last subdued their enemies. For two years (1858-1860) the military government of A. was superseded by the institution of a special Since the subjugation of A., the French have conministerial department for A. and the colonies, ferred various benefits on the colonists and native which was first of all intrusted to Prince Napoleon. tribes, not the least important of which has been the In December 1860, however, a military govern-digging of Artesian wells (q. v.). In May 1856, a ment was re-instituted, and Marshal Pélissier made boring' was commenced in an oasis of the Sahara Governor-general, with a Vice-governor under him, or desert of the province of Constantine. A civil a Director-general for Civil Affairs, and a Council engineer, a sergeant of Spahis, and a detachment of |