and of powerful wing, although their wings are rounded and not elongated; some of them performing great migrations, and flying at a prodigious height in the air. One of these is the COMMON C. (G. cinerea), which breeds in the northern parts of Europe and Asia, retiring in winter to tropical or sub-tropical regions. Flocks of cranes periodically pass over the southern and central countries of Europe, uttering their loud harsh cries in the air, and occasionally alighting to seek food in fields or marshes. The C., when standing, is about four feet in height; the prevailing colour is ash-gray, the face and throat nearly black, the wing primaries black. The tertial featliers of the wings are elongated, reaching beyond the ends of the primaries, and their webs are unconnected; they are varied and tipped with bluish-black, and are the well-known plumes once much used in ornamental head-dresses. The visits of the C. to Britain are now very rare, although in former times they were comparatively frequent. It feeds on roots, seeds, &c., as well as on worms, insects, reptiles, and even some of the smallest quadrupeds. It is much esteemed for the table.-There are several other species of Crane. The WHOOPING C. (G. Americana) is considerably larger than the common C., which it otherwise much resembles except in colour; its plumage, in its adult state, is pure white, the tips of the wings black. It spends the winter in the southern parts of North America. In summer it migrates far northwards, but rather in the interior than the eastern parts of the continent. To the C. family belong also the Demoiselles (q. v.), with which, rather than with the true cranes, the Balearic Cranes or Balearicans are ranked.Cranes use their bill as a dagger, and when wounded are dangerous to the eyes of a rash assailant.

worms without legs, sometimes confounded with wire-worms by farmers are extremely destructive to crops of various kinds, devouring the roots of corn and pasture grasses, potatoes, turnips, and almost all the plants ordinarily cultivated either in field or garden. Rolling of fields is useful in killing them; and soot, salt, and other applications are employed in gardens.

CRANE'S-BILL. See GERANIUM.

CRANGANO'RE, a maritime town of the district of Malabar on the west coast of Hindustan, stands at the mouth of a river of its own name, otherwise called the Aycotta. It is 19 miles to the north of Cochin, and 75 to the south of Calicut, being in lat. 10° 14′ N., and long. 76° 16' E. At one time possessed by the Portuguese, it was taken from them by the Dutch about 1663; and after being purchased by the rajah of Travancore in 1789, and wrested from him by Tippoo Sultan in 1790, it was conceded by the latter to the British. But the more ancient history of the place is still more interesting, for here have existed from the 4th and 5th centuries respectively congregations of Jews and Christians. CRA'NGON. See SHRIMP.

CRA'NIUM. See SKULL.

S

CRANE-FLY (Tipula) a genus of dipterous winged) insects of the family Tipulida, to the whole of which the name C. is often extended, nearly allied to the Gnat family (Culicidae), which they

α

Crane-Fly (Tipula oleracea):

W

W

whatever-viz., when the arm of the crank, C, is parallel to the connecting-rod, as in the fig., and again when the crank is at the opposite point of its course. A push or pull of the rod in such circumstances can only press the shaft against its bearings. The effect is greatest when the rod and the crank-arm are at right angles, and it decreases gradually on both sides of that position, until at the top and bottom it is reduced to nothing. In order to carry the C. over these dead points, as they are called, a flywheel is fixed on the shaft; this receives part of the force of the rod while at its best, acts as a reservoir, and by its stored-up momentum carries the shaft round when the rod is powerless.

CRANMER, THOMAS, one of the chief reformers of the English Church, and the first Protestant Archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Aslacton, in the county of Nottingham, on the 2d of July 1489. He was descended from an old Norman family, which is said to have come into England with William the Conqueror. In his 14th year, he went to Jesus College, Cambridge, of which he was elected a fellow in 1510. He devoted himself dili

out of the earth; d, perfect insect.

with Gardiner and Fox, afterwards Bishops of Winchester and Hereford, happening to be in the neighbourhood, the event proved a turning-point in the life of Cranmer. The king was then seriously concerned about his divorce from Catharine of Aragon, and in conversation on the subject with Gardiner and Fox, Cranmer suggested that the question should be tried according to the word of God.' Fox having mentioned this suggestion to the king, Henry was greatly pleased, and 'swore by the mother of God, that man hath the right sow by the ear.' From this time, Henry never lost sight of Cranmer. He was asked to reduce his suggestion to writing, and to have it submitted to the European universities. After this he was appointed Archdeacon of Taunton, and one of the royal chaplains. He was also sent to Rome on a special embassy about the divorce, but met with little success. Subsequently, he was despatched to the Emperor on the same errand, and while in Germany, he married a second time, a niece of the German divine, Osiander. This took place in 1532; and shortly afterwards, on the death of Archbishop Warham, he was recalled to fill the vacant see. Under his auspices, Henry's divorce was speedily carried through, and C. married the king to Anne Boleyn, on the 28th May 1533. In Anne's subsequent disgrace, and again, in the affair of Anne of Cleves, the archbishop took a part not very creditable to him. His position was no doubt a difficult one, but his character was naturally pliable and timid, rather than resolved and consistent. The same spirit characterises the measures of religious reform which were promoted by him. On the one hand, he joined actively with Henry in restricting the power of the pope, and in suppressing the monasteries; but, on the other hand, he was no less active in persecuting men like Frith, Forrest, and others, who, on matters of religious faith, were disposed to advance further than himself or the king. He did what he could, however, to resist the reactionary movement which took place in 1539, and which is known by the institution of the Six Articles.' He was also instrumental in promoting the translation and circulation of the Scriptures. On Henry VIII.'s death, Cranmer was appointed one of the regents of the kingdom, and along with Latimer and others, largely contributed to the advance of the Protestant cause during the reign of Edward. He assisted in the compilation of the Service-book and the Articles of Religion. The latter are said to have been chiefly composed by him. He was also the author of four of the Homilies.

On the accession of Mary, he was committed to the Tower, along with Latimer and Ridley. In March 1554, they were removed to Oxford, and confined there in the common prison, called the Bocardo. Latimer and Ridley bore their cruel fate with magnanimous courage; but the spirit and principles of C. temporarily gave way under the severity of his sufferings. He was induced, in the hope of saving his life, to sign no fewer than six recantations; but his enemies were determined to be satisfied by nothing short of his death. On the 21st March 1556, he suffered martyrdom, as his fellowreformers had done, opposite Baliol College. His courage returned at the end, and he died protesting his repentance for his unworthy weakness in changing his faith, and shewing an unexpected fortitude in the midst of the flames.

CRANNOGES, the name given in Ireland and in Scotland to the fortified islands in lakes which were in common use as dwelling-places and places of refuge among the Celtic inhabitants. The etymology of the word is uncertain, but it is believed to refer to the timber which was employed either in

the fortification of the island, or in the construction of the houses which were placed upon it.

The earliest notice of such lake-dwellings which has been observed, is in the pages of Herodotus (book v. chap. 16). Writing of the Persian invasion of Thrace and Macedonia under Darius-about 500 years before the Christian era, and less than 100 years before his own death-he relates how the satrap Megabazus, warring against the Pæonians, led certain tribes of them captive into Asia, but failed to conquer those who inhabited Lake Prasias. 'He sought, indeed,' says the historian, 'to subdue the dwellers upon the lake, but could not effect his purpose. Their manner of living is the following. Platforms, supported upon tall piles, stand in the middle of the lake, which are approached from the land by a single narrow bridge. At the first, the piles which bear up the platforms were fixed in their places by the whole body of the citizens; but since that time the custom which has prevailed about fixing them is this: They are brought from a hill called Orbelus, and every man drives in three for each wife that he marries. Now, the men have all many wives apiece, and this is the way in which they live. Each has his own hut, wherein he dwells, upon one of the platforms, and each has also a trapdoor giving access to the lake beneath; and their wont is to tie their baby-children by the foot with a string, to save them from rolling into the water. They feed their horses and their other beasts upon fish, which abound in the lake to such a degree, that a man has only to open his trap-door, and to let down a basket by a rope into the water, and then to wait a very short time, when he draws it up quite full of them. The fish are of two kinds, which they call the paprax and the tilon.' Lake Prasias of the Father of History seems to be the modern Lake Takinos, on the Strymon or Kara-su, a river which, rising on the borders of Bulgaria, flows southward through Roumelia, and, after expanding its waters into a lake, falls into the Gulf of Contessa. The fish named by Herodotus have not been identified by naturalists; Lake Takinos abounds in carp, tench, and eels.

The

The island-dwellings of Lake Prasias met with comparatively little attention until archeologists, quite recently, found the remains of similar habitations in other parts of Europe. The first discovery was made in Ireland in 1839, by Mr W. R. Wilde, one of the secretaries of the Royal Irish Academy. The small lake of Lagore, near Dunshaughlin, in the county of Meath, having been drained, a circular mound, which had been an island in its waters, was observed to be thickly strewed with bones. As these were to be carted away for manure, it was found to be an artificial structure. Its circumference, measuring 520 feet, was formed by upright piles of oak about 7 feet long, mortised into oakplanks laid flat upon the marl and sand at the bottom of the lake. The upright piles were tied together by cross-beams, and the space which they enclosed was divided into compartments by oakbeams, some of which had grooves, so as to allow panels to be driven down between them. The com partments thus formed were filled with bones and black peaty earth. Portions of a second tier of upright piles were observed rising from the first tier. The bones were ascertained to be those of several varieties of oxen, of swine, deer, goats, sheep, dogs, foxes, horses, and asses. Along with them were found a vast number of weapons, ornaments, and utensils, fashioned of stone, bone, wood, bronze, and iron; such as swords, knives, spears, javelins, daggers, whetstones, querns (or hand-mills), beads, pics, brooches, combs, horse-trappings, shears, chains, ax, pots, and bowls. On reference to the ancient annala,

in which Ireland is so rich, it was seen that, in 848 A. D., a hostile Irish chief 'plundered the island of Loch Gabhor [as Lagore was then written], and afterwards burned it, so that it was level with the ground;' and that again, in 933 A.D., the island of Loch Gabhor was pulled down' by the piratical Norsemen.

Mr Wilde's discovery at Lagore was followed by other discoveries of the same kind elsewhere in Ireland, so that in 1857 the existence of about fifty C. had been ascertained; and every succeeding year has seen an increase of the number. They shew several varieties of construction. The island at Lagore is a type of the purely artificial crannoge. But most frequently the crannoge was partly natural. An islet just level with the water, was raised artificially a foot or two above it. An islet too small to be a convenient habitation, or too easy of landing to be a place of defence, had its area artificially enlarged, or its banks artificially strengthened, generally by piles or stockades, but occasionally by heaps of stones. The space thus enclosed is generally a circle of from 60 to 80 feet in diameter; but in some cases the enclosed space is larger, and of an oval shape. The piles are generally of oak, mostly young trees, from four to nine inches broad, still bearing marks of the hatchet; usually a single row has been considered enough, but there are instances of two, and even of three rows. It would seem that originally the piles had risen several feet above the water, and it has been supposed that they were interlaced with branches placed horizontally, so as

to form a screen or breastwork. The area within the stockade is sometimes wholly or partially covered with a layer of round logs, from four to six feet long, having stones, clay, or gravel above them. Fragments of oak-framing, with mortises and cheeks cut in them, have been found within the piles. In almost every instance, a few flat stones, apparently serving as a hearth, have been observed near the middle of the enclosure: in several C., two or three hearths have been met with. In some cases, a causeway leads from the island to the mainland; but in general the crannoge was to be reached only by boat, and scarcely any crannoge has been discovered without the remains of a primitive canoe, hollowed out of the trunk of an oak, being found beside it. In at least one crannoge, a pier or jetty projected from the island; it was a double row of piles and stretchers, running parallel to each other at a distance of about eight feet, and supporting a platform of logs. Ou almost every crannoge one or two querns (q. v.) have been found, along with bones of oxen, deer, goats, and swine, horns of cattle, deer, sheep, and goats, boars' tusks, and sharpening stones: fragments of pottery, and articles of stone, bone, horn, wood, glass, copper, bronze, brass, and iron, are of somewhat rarer occurrence. Many of the C. had been submerged by the gradual rise of the lakes in which they stood, so that their existence only became known as the great drainage-works of late years reduced the waters to their old level.

The accompanying woodcut shews a section (on the scale of 1 inch to 20 feet) of the crannoge in

Ardakillin Lough, near Stokestown, in the county of Roscommon. The uppermost line marks the highest level of the waters of the lake; the middle line, the common winter level; the third line, the common summer level. The upper surface of the crannoge was formed of a layer of loose stones, surrounded by a wall, partly supported by piles. The stones rested on the natural clay, peat, and boulders of the island, in digging through which strata of ashes, bones, and logs of timber were met with. The stockades were of oak; the oblique or slanting stockade shewn in the woodcut represents a girdle of sheet-piling which quite encircled the crannoge.

The woodcut on the following page gives a ground-plan (on the scale of 1 inch to 20 feet) of one of two C. in Drumaleague Lough, in the county of Leitrim. The circle within the ring of stockades is 60 feet in diameter; in some places there are two, and in others, three rows of stockades; and within this outer ring, there are groups of piles, some of them arranged apparently for some special purpose. The oblong space in the middle, marked A, is covered by a rude platform of round logs, chiefly of alder, from four to six feet in length; it was probably the floor of the log-house, which was the chief or only dwelling-place on the islet. B shews where the hearth stood-a collection of stones, still retaining traces of fire; C marks a heap of stiff clay; D, the root of a large tree nearly buried in the peat, the surface of the wood being bevelled off with a hatchet, so as to form a sort of table, under which was found a heap of bones, apparently of deer and swine.

The Irish annals, it has been seen, make mention of C. as early as the 9th c., and they figure in history down to the middle of the 17th century. The crannoge of Lough Lynch, in Antrim, is shewn as the birthplace of Colkitto, a chief who figured in Montrose's wars, and has found a place in one of Milton's sonnets. The crannoge of Roughan Lake, near Dungannon, was the last retreat of Sir Phelim O'Neil in 1641. Two years later, there is record of an attempt to flood the crannoge of Loughinsholin, in the county of Londonderry, by turning a stream into the lake, and damming up its outlet. This attempt failed; but in 1645 the garrison were compelled by hunger to give the crannoge to the flames, and make their escape. In 1567, an agent of the English government, who was asked what were the castles of the O'Neil, wrote in reply: For castles, he trusteth no point thereunto for his safety, as appeareth by the razing of the strongest castles of all his countries; and that fortification that he only dependeth upon is in certain fresh-water lochs in his country, which from the sea there comes neither ship nor boat to approach them: it is thought that there, in the said fortified islands, lieth all his plate (which is much), and money, prisoners, and gages [i. e., hostages]; which islands have in wars heretofore been attempted, and now of late again by the lord-deputy there, Sir Harry Sydney, which for want of means for safe conduct upon the water hath not prevailed.'

While archaeologists were still exploring the C. of Ireland, structures of a similar kind were

In at least one instance, the remains of a bridge or gangway, leading from the platform to the shore, have been discovered. Many small boats, hollowed out of the trunks of trees, have been found; and one large vessel of the same kind, 50 feet long, and 34 feet wide, has been observed at the bottom of the Lake of Bienne. The woodcut on the preceding page shews the pfahlbauten, as the Swiss archæologists believe them to have been in their original state.

The lake-dwellings of Switzerland have obviously much more resemblance to those of Lake Prasias, described by Herodotus, than to the C. of Ireland. But the Swiss at the same time can shew examples of the Irish type. At Nidau Steinberg, in the Lake of Bienne, there is an artificial mound of stones, resting on horizontal planks, and encircled by a row of upright piles. It is now submerged, but when as the Swiss believe the lake stood at a lower level, it must have been an island. At Moringen, in the same lake, there is another pile-building, enclosing a mound of stones which has an area of about half an acre. A canoe which had been used in its construction lies with its load of stones at the bottom of the lake. Structures still more nearly resembling the Irish C. have been found in the lakes of Inkwyl, Nussbaumen, and Wauwyl.

History and tradition are alike silent as to the pile-buildings of the Swiss lakes. That they belong to a remote age, will readily be granted, even by those who may hesitate to accept 'the stone, bronze, and iron periods' on which the Swiss antiquary rests their claims to 'pre-historic' antiquity; or who may question the grounds on which the Swiss naturalist assigns them to the 15th c. before the Christian era. Of the remains found in them, many appear to be those of a rude people such as spear-points, arrowheads, axes, chisels, knives, and even small saws, of flint and stone; arrow-heads, daggers, hammers, bodkins, needles, pins, rings, bracelets, necklaces, of bone or horn. Articles of bronze, some of them richly ornamented, are at the same time of common occurrence; and swords and other objects of iron are met with in considerable numbers. Some of the Swiss archaeologists seem at one time to have thought that the piles surrounded by stone and bone implements shewed marks of greater age than the piles surrounded by bronze implements. It is now admitted, however, that both stone and bronze objects, and bronze and iron objects, are to be found in the same group of piles. It is to be remarked, too, that many of the objects of stone, bone, horn, bronze, and iron, are fashioned of the same shape, and for the same use, differing only in the substance of which they are made. Whoever the dwellers on the pfahlbauten were, their remains shew that they grew wheat and barley; that they ate the flesh of the ox, the goat, the sheep, and the pig; that among the beasts of the chase which they hunted down was the now extinct species of the aurochs (see BISON); that they had horses, dogs, and cats; that they had apples, pears, wild-plums, and wood-raspberries; that they baked pottery; that their women plied the distaff and knitted; that they made hempen mats; and that they wove linen cloths.

Hitherto, archaeologists knew of lake-dwellings as existing only in Ireland and Switzerland; but in 1857, Mr Joseph Robertson read a paper to the Society of Scottish Antiquaries, proving that they were to be found in almost every province of Scotland. He not only ascertained the existence of about 50 examples, but was able to shew from records that they were known in Scotland by the same name of C. which they received in Ireland. The resemblance between the Scottish and Irish types seems, indeed, to be complete. Every variety of structure observed

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in the one country is to be found in the other, from the purely artificial island, framed of oak-beams, mortised together, to the natural island, artificially fortified or enlarged by girdles of oak-piles or ramparts of loose stones; from the island with a pier projecting from its side, to the island communicating with the mainland by a causeway. If there be any difference between the C. of the two countries, it is that the number of C. constructed altogether of stones is greater in Scotland than in Ireland-a difference which is readily explained by the difference in the physical circumstances of the two countries. Among the more remarkable of the Scotch C. is that in the loch of Forfar, which bears the name of St Margaret, the queen of King Malcolm Canmore, who died in 1097. It is chiefly natural, but has been strengthened by piles and stones, and the care taken to preserve this artificial barrier is attested by a record of the year 1508. Another crannogethat of Lochindorb, in Moray-was visited by King Edward I. of England in 1303, about which time it was fortified by a castle of such mark that in 1336, King Edward III. of England led an army to its relief through the mountain-passes of Athol and Badenoch. A third crannoge that of Loch Cannor or Kinord, in Aberdeenshire-appears in history in 1335, had King James IV. for its guest in 1506, and continued to be a place of strength until 1648, when the estates of parliament ordered its fortifications to be destroyed. It has an area of about an acre, and owes little or nothing to art beyond a rampart of stones and a row of piles. In the same lake there is another and much smaller crannoge, which is wholly artificial. Forty years after the dismantling of the crannoge of Loch Cannor, the crannoge of Lochan-Eilean, in Strathspey, is spoken of as 'useful to the country in time of troubles or wars, for the people put in their goods and children here, and it is easily defended.' Canoes hollowed out of the trunks of oaks have been found as well beside the Scotch, as beside the Irish crannoges. Bronze vessels, apparently for kitchen purposes, are also of frequent occurrence, but do not seem to be of a very ancient type. Deer's horns, boars' tusks, and the bones of domestic animals, have been discovered; and in one instance a stone hammer, and in another what seem to be pieces for some such game as draughts or backgammon, have been dug up.

Since 1857, the existence of lake-dwellings has been discovered in Savoy, in Upper Italy, in Hanover, in Prussia, and in Denmark. Less certain traces have been found in England, in draining a mere at Wretham Hall, near Thetford, in Norfolk. The savages of Borneo and New Guinea still live on the water, in huts perched upon platforms supported by piles; and wooden houses raised upon piles are common in Burmah and Siam, on the creeks and rivers of the Strait of Malacca, and it is believed elsewhere in Asia. A bas-relief from the palace of Sennacherib, engraved in Mr Layard's Monuments of Nineveh, represents what seem to be artificial islands, formed, it would seem, by wattling together the tall reeds of the marshes on the lower part of the Euphrates.

The C. of Ireland are described in the Proceedings. of the Royal Irish Academy, vols. i., v., vii.; Mr Wilde's Catalogue of the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy; The Archæological Journal, vols. iii., vi.; Mr Digby Wyatt's Observations on the Early Habitations of the Irish (Lond. 1858); The Ulster Journal of Archeology, No. 26; Proceedings of the Kilkenny Archæological Society, No. 27. The chief works on the lake-dwellings of Switzerland are Dr Ferdinand Keller's three papers on Pfahlbauten, and Dr L. Rutimeyer's Untersuchung der Thierreste

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