at largely fro.n those in which cinchonia is most abundant.

The cutting and peeling of C.-trees are carried on by Indians, who go in parties, and pursue their occupation during the whole of the dry season. They build a hut, which serves both for their abode and for drying the bark. The trees are felled as near the root as possible, that none of the bark may be lost; and the bark being stripped off, is carefully dried; the quilled form of the thinner bark is acquired in drying. The bark is made up into packages of various size, but averaging about 150 lbs. weight, closely wrapped in woollen cloth, and afterwards in hides, to be conveyed on mules' backs to the towns. These packages are called drums or seroons. It is in them that the bark is always brought to Europe.

A number of spurious kinds of Peruvian or C. Bark are either sent into the market separately, or are employed for adulterating the genuine kinds. They are bitter-barks, and have, in greater or less degree, febrifugal properties, but are chemically and medicinally very different from true C. bark. They are produced by trees of genera very closely allied to cinchona.

It is much to be regretted, that whilst the C.-trees are becoming every year more scarce, and the demand for the bark is constantly increasing, no attempt is made to increase the supply by their cultivation. Nor does there appear any good reason why this, when it shall be attempted, should be limited to their native Cordilleras; it rather appears wonderful that earnest efforts have not been already made to diffuse plants so valuable over the many countries which would probably be found quite suitable to them in respect of climate.

The Indians of Peru call the C. trees Kina, from whence are derived the names China, Quina, &c. But it is not certain that they knew the use of the bark before the arrival of the Spaniards. It is a medicine of great value in the cure of intermittent fevers (see AGUE), and diseases attended with much febrile debility; also in certain forms of Neuralgia (q. v.), and other diseases of the nervous system. It seems to have been first imported into Europe in 1639, by the Countess Del Cinchon or Chinchon, the wife of the viceroy of Peru, who had been cured of an obstinate intermittent fever by means of it, and upon this account it was named C. Bark and Countess's Powder (Pulvis comitissa). The Jesuit missionaries afterwards carried it to Rome, and distributed it through their several stations, and thus it acquired the name of Jesuits' Bark and Powder of the Fathers (Pulvis patrum). Cardinal Juan de Lugo having been particularly active in recommending and distributing it, it was also known as Cardinal de Lugo's Powder. It attained great celebrity in Spain and Italy, being sold at high prices by the Jesuits, by whom it was lauded as an infallible remedy, while by most of the orthodox physicians it was coldly received, and by the Protestants, altogther repudiated. Its mode of action not being well understood, and the cases to which it was applicable not well defined, it seems, in the first instance, to have been employed without due discrimination, and to have fallen very much into the hands of empirics. Falling, however, into disuse in Europe, it was again brought into notice by Sir Robert Talbor or Talbot, an Englishman, who brought it to England in 1671, and acquired great celebrity through the cure of intermittents by means of it, and from whom Louis XIV. purchased his secret in 1682. A pound of bark at that time cost 100 louis-d'or. Talbor seems to have been a vain and self-seeking man, but who had, nevertheless, the acuteness to discern and systematically to

avail himself of the healing virtues of the neglected Jesuits' Bark, which he mixed with other substances, so as to conceal its taste and odour. Soon afterwards, both Morton and Sydenham, the most celebrated English physicians of the age, adopted the new remedy; and its use, from this period, gradually extended, both in England and France, notwithstanding the opposition of the Faculty of Medicine in the latter country. As it came into general use, it became a most important article of export from Peru; but for a long time, the value of the bark to be procured in New Granada remained unknown; and in order to the maintenance of a commercial monopoly, extraordinary methods were even employed to prevent it from becoming known at a comparatively recent period of Spanish rule in America. The discovery of the alkaloids on which its properties chiefly depend, constitutes a new era in the history of this medicine, and did not take place till the beginning of the present century.

The chief active principles are the two alkaloids, Quinine (q. v.) and Cinchonine. The latter is not generally present in so large a proportion as the quinine, and does not possess such powerful medicinal properties. When isolated, the alkaloid Cinchonia, or Cinchonine, has the formula (CH2,N2O2), and can be obtained in a crystallised state.

C. Bark itself has, in later times, fallen into comparative disuse, owing to the discovery of the alkaloid quinine, which is now extensively in use in medicine in the form of sulphate or disulphate of quina, and is given in doses of from one to twenty grains, in almost all the cases to which the bark was supposed to be applicable.

CINCHONA'CEÆ, a natural order of exogen

ous plants, consisting of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, with simple, entire, opposite, or whorled leaves, and stipules between their footstalks. The calyx is adherent to the ovary; the corolla is tubular and regular, its segments are equal in number to those of the calyx, when the calyx is divided; the stamens arise from the corolla, and are alternate with its segments. The ovary is surrounded by a disk, and usually two-celled; the style single, the fruit either splitting into two halves order has been very generally regarded by botanists or not splitting at all, either dry or succulent.-This as a sub-order of Rubiaceae (q. v.), but far exceeds all the rest of that order, both in the number and importance of its species, of which from 2500 to 3000 are known, mostly tropical, and the remainder, with few exceptions, sub-tropical. The C. are nearly allied to Caprifoliacea (woodbines or honeysuckles, &c.), and interesting relations have been pointed out between them and Umbelliferæ. They constitute a very large part of the flora of tropical regions. Besides the genus Cinchona (q. v.) and other genera minea, Pinckneya, Portlandia, &c.-the order proproducing febrifugal barks-Exostemma, Conda duces a number of valuable medicinal plants, of which Ipecacuanha (q. v.) is the most important. The Coffee (q. v.) shrub belongs to it; and also the tree which yields Gambir (q. v.). It produces a number of plants employed in dyeing, among which are the Chay Root or Choya, and some species of Morinda. Some trees of this order yield valuable timber. Many of the species have beautiful and fragrant flowers; and some produce pleasant fruits, among which are the Genipap (Genipa Americana) of South America, the Native Peach (Sarcocephalus esculentus) of Sierra Leone, and the Voavanga of Madagascar (Vangueria edulis).

CINCINNATI, the commercial capital of Ohio, is situated on the right bank of the liver which

gives name to the state, and separates it from Virginia and Kentucky. It stands in lat. 39° 6' 30" N., and in long. 84° 26' W., 458 miles below Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, where the Ohio, as such, is first formed, and 500 miles above the junction of that stream and the Mississippi. Though C. was founded in 1788, yet, in 1800, it had only 750 inhabitants. In 1820, 1830, 1840, and 1850, respectively, the national census gave it 9602, 24,830, 46,338, and 115,438. In 1853, a local enumeration resulted in 160,186; and, at a similar rate of increase, the population must now, in 1860, far exceed 200,000. Its natural facilities for commerce are great, and they have been increased artificially by the Miami Canal, which unites it with Lake Erie. In 1852, the water-borne commerce of this inland emporium employed 267 steam-vessels. In 1854, its shipping, enrolled and licensed, had an aggregate tonnage of 23,843 tons. Railways branch off from C., as a centre, in several directions. In 1854, the exports amounted to 45,432,780 dollars, and the imports to 65,730,029 dollars-being together equivalent to about £23,000,000 sterling.

The staple article of the trade of C. is pork. Lately, however, wine from the Catawba (q. v.) grape has been made in the neighbourhood, to a great extent. The city itself, also, is largely engaged in a variety of important manufactures, between 200 and 300 steam-engines being employed in the different establishments, and the aggregate products having, in 1851, been computed at 55,000,000 dollars. That computation referred in detail to iron-foundries, rolling-mills, lard-oil and stearine factories, and countless works connected with flour, clothing, furniture, paper, printing, tobacco, soap, candles, hats, &c. One remarkable fact, as bearing on the elements of the population, is, that of the thirty-five newspapers published in the city, eight -four daily and four weekly-are in German.

C. is substantially and handsomely built. Its ecclesiastical, literary, and commercial edifices are as numerous as befits the acknowledged Queen of the West. The city occupies chiefly two terraces, which are elevated respectively 50 feet and 108 above the level of the river. For the supply of the inhabitants, the water of the Ohio has been lifted into a limestone reservoir of 5,000,000 gallons, at an expense of 796,000 dollars, or about £160,000 sterling. The municipality, which is divided into 16 wards, is governed by a mayor and 48 trustees

or councillors.

CINCINNATI (the Cincinnatuses), a society or order in the United States of North America, established by the officers of the revolutionary army in 1783, 'to perpetuate their friendship, and to raise a fund for relieving the widows and orphans of those who had fallen during the war.' It was so named because it included patriots, headed by Washington, who in many instances had left rural affairs to serve their country (see CINCINNATUS). The badge of the society is a bald eagle suspended by a dark-blue ribbon with white borders, symbolising the union of France and America. On the breast of the eagle there is a figure of Cincinnatus receiving the military ensigns from the senators, with the plough in the background; round the whole are the words, Omnia reliquit servare rempublicam. On the reverse, the same hero is represented crowned by Fame with ⚫ wreath on which is inscribed virtutis præmium, &c. As this distinction was made hereditary, it was at acked, as opposed to republican equality. Frank a saw in it the germ of a future aristocracy, and at a meeting heki in Philadelphia in 1784, several changes were made in the constitution of the society, and in several of the states It was quietly abolished. There are still, however,

several state societies, which hold a general meeting by delegates triennially.

CINCINNA TUS, LUCIUS QUINCTIUS, a Roman consul, regarded by the later Romans as the model of antique virtue and simple manners. So far as we can discern his character through the veil of legend, C. appears to have been a violent patrician. About 460 B. C., he was chosen consul, and two years later, was made dictator. When the messengers from Rome came to tell C. of his new dignity, they found him ploughing on his small farm. He soon rescued the consul Lucius Minucius, who had been defeated and surrounded by the Equi. Livy's account of the mode in which the deliverance was effected is rejected by Niebuhr, who points out the inconsistencies and impossibilities of the story, and seems disposed to regard the whole as a mere myth. We are next informed that, after a dictatorship of sixteen days, C. returned to his small farm on the Tiber. When 80 years old, he was once more made dictator (439 B. C.), and suppressed a threatened plebeian insurrection.

CI'NDER-BED, a name given by the quarrymen to a stratum of the Upper Purbeck series, almost entirely composed of the loosely aggregated shells of a small oyster (Ostrea distorta).

order Composita, sub-order Corymbiferæ, very nearly CINERA'RIA, a genus of plants of the natural allied to Senecio (Groundsel, Ragwort, &c.), from which it differs only in having the involucre formed of one row of equal erect scales. The species are numerous, and widely diffused over the world in herbaceous plants; with simple, generally toothed very various climates. They are annual or perennial or sinuate leaves. Many of them are remarkable for the ashy appearance of the lower part of the leaves, whence their name (Lat. cinis, eris, ashes). The leaves are often covered with a peculiar sort of down. Two small species are natives of the southern parts of Britain. The flowers of some are very pretty. C. maritima, a native of the south of Europe, and other species, have for some time been much cultivated in gardens and green-houses. Many hybrids and varieties have been produced by cultivation.

CI'NERARY URNS (Lat. cinis, ashes) were used by the nations of antiquity to contain the ashes of the dead when gathered from the funeral pile. Previous to being deposited in the urn, the embers were soaked with wine; the urn was then placed in a

niche in the family mausoleum. Only the wealthy could afford so expensive a rite. C. U. were either sculptured in marble, or formed of clay or glass. They were not always in the form in which we commonly see them represented on modern tombs. Fig. 1 of the accompanying illustrations is the

derived from any leaf of five leaflets, but, as it perfect regularity of form indicates, from the flower of the plant called C. (Potentilla), or other simila flower of five petals or leaves. The C. thus closely resembles the rose, with which it would, indeed, be identified, but that a double and not a single rose is chosen for the purposes of heraldry and decorative art.

climate of Britain.

The constituents of C. are a volatile oil (Oil of C.), tannin, starch, mucilage, woody-fibre, resin, colouring matter, and an acid. The oil of C. is generally prepared in Ceylon by grinding the coarsest pieces of C., soaking them in sea-water for two or three days, and then distilling. Two oils pass over, one lighter, the other heavier than water. Oil of C. varies in colour from yellow to cherry-red, the yellow variety being considered the best, and is most highly esteemed. Oil of C. leaf is prepared from the leaves in Ceylon by a similar process, and is met with in commerce under the name of clove oil, which it much resembles in odour. C. water is obtained by adding water to C., and distilling a large quantity, or by diffusing the oil of C. through water by the aid of sugar or carbonate of magnesia. Spirit of C. is procured by acting upon C. with spirit of wine and water, and distilling; and tincture of C., by soaking C. in spirit of wine, and straining. The medicinal properties of C., and its preparation, are aromatic and carminative, and it is serviceable in cases of nausea and vomiting, and in cases of flatulence and spasmodic states of the stomach and alimentary

canal.

CINNAMON-STONE, a precious stone, of which the finer specimens are highly esteemed; it is regarded as a variety of Garnet (q. v.). Its colour varies from hyacinth red to orange yellow; and when pure, it is transparent. It is composed essentially of silica, alumina, and lime. It is found chiefly in Ceylon, where vast boulders of gneiss containing it in profusion exist in many places.

CINNYRIS. See SUN-BIRD.

CI'NQUÉ CE'NTO (Ital.), five hundred. A technical, or rather slang artistic term, used to designate the style of art which arose in Italy after the year 1500, and which therefore belongs to the 16th c.; i.e., after the fall of all the great schools. It is sensuous in its character, the subjects chosen being usually borrowed from heathen mythology or history.

CI'NQUEFOIL, in Botany. See POTENTILLA. CINQUEFOIL, a common bearing in heraldry. It is usually depicted with the leaves issuing from ball as a centre point.-C., in architecture, is an

In the

the five maritime ports of England lying opposite CINQUE PORTS (Fr. five ports). It is said that to the coast of France-Sandwich, Dover, Hythe, Romney, and Hastings-were enfranchised in the time of Edward the Confessor. But it was subsequent to the battle of Hastings that the Conqueror, in order that he might wield the resources of the seaports with greater vigour, constituted this whole from the counties of Kent and Sussex, and erected line of coast into a jurisdiction entirely separate it into a sort of county palatine, under a warden or guardian, the seat of whose administration was in Dover Castle. The warden, whose office corresponded to that of the ancient count of the Saxon coast (Comes littoris Saxonici), exercised jurisdiction, civil, military, and naval, uniting in his single fieutenant, and admiral. Privileges equal to those person the functions of sheriff, custos rotulorum, lordoriginally bestowed on the C. P. were subsequently extended to the so-called ancient towns of Winchelsea and Rye; and most of the municipal towns had subordinate ports and towns attached to them, which were called members. In place of the Saxon terms of aldermen and freemen, those of jurats and barons were introduced, and the latter term has C. P. in parliament. The chief function performed always been applied to the representatives of the such shipping as was required for the purposes of by the C. P. in early times consisted in furnishing the state, the crown having possessed no permanent time of Edward I., they were bound to provide no navy previous to the reign of Henry VII. less than 57 ships, fully equipped and manned at their own cost; though the weight of this heavy burden was somewhat lessened by the provision, that the period of gratuitous service should be limited to 15 days. In consequence of the warlike navy which they were thus compelled to maintain, the C. P. became so confident in their strength, and so insolent and audacious as not only to undertake piratical expeditions, but even to make war and form confederacies as independent states. Previous to the Revolution of 1688, the lord-wardens were in use to nominate the barons, or parliamentary representatives of the C. P.; but in 1689, an act was passed to 'declare the right and freedom of election of mem bers to serve in parliament for the cinque ports.' The Reform Bill of 1832 reduced the number of members sent to parliament by the C. P. from 16 to 8, and the Municipal Reform Act has broken up the ancient organisation of the ports, and assimilated their internal arrangements to those of other English municipalities. The ancient courts of Stepway, Brotherhood, and Guestling are still occasionally held, but their powers scarcely extend beyond matters of form, such as appointing the barons, who are to exercise an ancient privilege of the ports, which consists in carrying the canopy over the sovereign's head at a coronation. The lord-warden's jurisdiction, in relation to civil suits and proceedings, was abolished by 18 and 19 Vict. c. 48, amended by 20 and 21 Vict. č. 1.

CINTRA, a small but picturesquely situated town in Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, about 15 miles west-north-west of Lisbon, with a population of 4300. It stands on the declivity of the

Sierra de Cintra, and is surrounded by country residences. There is a palace at C., a strange mixture of Moorish and Christian architecture, anciently occupied by the Moorish kings, and subsequently a favourite residence of the Christian monarchs. A charming view of the town and of the sea is to be had from the top of a hill crowned with the ruins of a Moorish castle. On another hill-top stands La Penna, once a convent, now a residence of the king of Portugal, who has restored and given it the outward appearance of a feudal castle. In the neighbourhood, also, is what is called the Cork Convent, which derives its name from the cells which are cut out in the rock-being lined with cork to prevent damp.

C. is historically remarkable for the Convention concluded here, August 22, 1808, between the English and French, by which the latter agreed to evacuate Portugal. Junot had been defeated by Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimieira, and had retreated

towards Torres Vedras and Lisbon, whither the English under Sir Hew Dalrymple, who had just arrived and assumed the chief command, were preparing to follow them. But the French, despairing of finally holding out, agreed to evacuate the country, on condition of not being treated as prisoners of war, but landed on the coast of France, retaining their arms and effects. This convention excited the greatest public indignation both in the Peninsula and in England. Several English newspapers appeared in mourning, and the ministry were obliged to have the generals who signed the convention tried by a court-martial, which, however, resulted in their acquittal. In fact, though the terms of the convention might be advantageous for the French, to obtain immediate possession of Portugal and Lisbon, instead of being put to the necessity of a bloody siege for months, was no less advantageous to the English and their allies. Such, at least, was the opinion of two competent judges -Napoleon and Wellington.

CIOTAT, LA, a town of France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, situated on the west side of a bay in the Mediterranean, about 15 miles south-east of Marseille, in the midst of a district clad with olive, orange, and pomegranate planta tions. It is well built, and has a good and commodious harbour, formed by a mole, and well defended. The industry consists in cotton-spinning, ship-building, and an active trade in the produce of the district. Pop. 5730.

CIPHER, an ornamental arrangement of the initial letters of a name, by which they become

Jon Bl.

Ciphers.

also a private mark, adopted by artists and archi. tects as distinctive of their work. That of Albrecht Dürer is well known. Of those given in the illustration, the first is that of Christopher von Sichem; the second, that of Adrian Bolswert.

CI'PHER-WRITING. See CRYPTOGRAPHY. CIPRIA'NI, GIAMBATTISTA, painter and copperengraver, was born in Florence, 1732, or, according to others, in 1727, and when 19 years old, went to Rome, where he chose Correggio as a model, and soon gained a high reputation. Invited by certain English residents in Rome, the artist came to London about 1754, where he was one of the first

members of the Royal Academy (founded 1769), and died in 1785. His drawing is correct, his colouring harmonious, his heads have grace and loveliness, and the general style of his works is attractive, although exceedingly conventional. A series of small copperplate illustrations of Orlando Furioso well exemplifies his graceful style. Several of Bartolozzi's best engravings are in C.'s manner.

C. Lutetiana is

pretty little herbaceous plants of the natural order CIRCE'A (from Circe, q. v.), a genus of rather Onagracea, with a deeply 2-cleft calyx, a corolla of two petals, and two stamens. frequent in shady situations in Britain, and in most parts of the continent of Europe. It bears the English name of ENCHANTER'S NIGHTSHADE, and in Germany it is called Hexenkraut (Witches' Herb). The plant possesses no remarkable properties, being The origin of such names is not easily explained. merely a little astringent. Other species are found in the Himalaya, &c.

CIRCARS. See NORTHERN CIRCARS.

CIRCASSIA, a division of the Western Caucasus, comprising the north, and also a portion of the south slope of that mountain-range extending in lat. 42°— 45° N., and long 37°-47° E. See CAUCASUS.

CIRCASSIANS, in the wide sense of the term, is the name given to all the independent tribes of the Caucasus; in a narrower sense, it denotes the inhabitants of the western part of the range, which is called, in consequence, Circassia. The Č. proper, however, inhabit only the north-western wing of the Caucasus, with the exclusion of Abasia, or the portion between the Black Sea in the west and the lower bank of the river Kuban in the north. They are called by the Turks Tcharcassians, but by themselves Adighé. They number from 500,000 to 600,000, and are divided into fifteen tribes or clans. For their place in Ethnology, see CAUCASIAN VARIETY OF MANKIND. The Circassian language, as regards the pronunciation, is peculiar, and difficult to acquire. The social condition of these tribes is precisely what it was when they first appear in history. They are a marauding and warlike people, amongst whom it is held more honourable to live by plunder than by peaceful industry. In common with all brigand tribes, the C. cherish the most unrestrained love of independ ence. Their government is a singular compound of constitutionalism and feudalism. There are five distinct ranks in the nation-viz., chiefs or princes, nobles, common freemen, dependants, and slaves The class of common freemen make up the great mass of the people; they possess property, and enjoy the same political rights as the nobles. The fourth class, the dependants, are the vassals of the princes and nobles, whose lands they culti vate, and whose armies they form. Yet their lord has no right over their person; for in some cases they and their whole families leave him; and they can only be sold as slaves for punishment according to the previous verdict of a national assembly. The fifth class comprises the slaves, or those who have been made captive in war. They constitute the greater part of the wealth of their lords, and serve especially to increase their power.

As regards the religion of the C., the princes and nobles are principally Mohammedans, whilst the great mass of the people have a religion which is a kind of mixture of Christianity and paganism, in which the celebration of Easter, the sign of the Cross, sacred trees, sacrifice and processions with lights, play an important part. The C. are as yet ignorant of writing, although they possess ininstrels (kikoakoa), who are held in great esteem. Pes.des agriculture and the rearing of cattle, which is