which he especially treated of the ganglionic nerves and their functions, and proposed a new and more simple classification of diseases, appeared in 1822, and the Elements of Physiology in 1824. But C.'s most important work is the Dictionary of Practical Medicine, to which he devoted the labor of many years (Lond. 1830–1858, 3 vols.). This comprehensive work has attained an extensive reputation in America and Germany as well as in England. The views given in his essay on Pestilential Cholera, published in 1832, when the cholera first appeared in Britain, have been confirmed by experience. He has also published, besides various contributions to medical periodicals, a treatise on Palsy and Apoplexy, and, in connection with Dr Annesley, one On the Diseases of Warm Climates.

CO'PLEY, JOHN SINGLETON, the father of the present Lord Lyndhurst, and a historical painter of so me note, was born at Boston in the United States, July 3, 1737. In 1774 he came to England, and after a visit to Italy, settled permanently in London. In 1783 he was elected a member of the Royal Academy, and died in 1815. C.'s best work is the Death of Lord Chatham,' now in the national collection. Besides it, may be mentioned his King Charles Ordering the Arrest of the Five Members of Parliament,' the 'Death of Major Pierson,' the Assassination of Buckingham,' and 'King Charles Signing Strafford's Death Warrant.' CO'PPER is one of the most anciently known metals, and its name is derived from the island of Cyprus, where it was first obtained by the Greeks. In the earlier times, C. does not appear to have been employed by itself, but always in admixture with other metals, principally tin, forming what is now called bronze (q. v.). There is every reason to believe, that next to the large quantities of tin which they obtained, one of the great inducements which the Phoenicians had in making searches for metals in Great Britain, was the C. which they procured in their workings in Cornwall.

C. is sometimes met with in nature in a state of purity, but generally it is associated with oxygen, water, and carbonic acid, forming the native carbonate of C. or malachite or Atlas ore (Cu4CO1+aq.). or with iron and sulphur, forming the native sulphurets of C. and iron or chalcopyrite (CuFeS). In smaller quantity C. occurs as the oxide (CuO), and sulphate (CuOSO,), and in all cases the ore is obtained from fissures or veins in other rocks. The principal yield of C. ore in Great Britain is from the mines in Cornwall, but large supplies are also obtained from Australia, and from Cuba and Chili in South America. In North America, in the neighbourhood of Lake Superior, C. ore occurs abundantly, and a vein of metallic C. is there found which in some places is about two feet in thickness.

In the extraction of C. from its ores, the metallurgic processes followed are very tedious and complicated, which mainly arises from the difficulty of separating the iron and sulphur from the copper. The general principle which regulates the workingup of the ore is to burn away the sulphur (S) as sulphurous acid (H2SOs), and to carry off the iron by means of fluxes in the form of scoria or slag. Metallurgists enumerate ten distinct steps in the production of commercially pure copper.

C. (symbol Cu, from Lat. cuprum) has the equivalent 31 65. It is the only red metal, has the specific gravity 8.78 when cast, and 8.96 when rolled or hammered; fuses at 2538° F. (Daniell), and at a white heat passes off in vapour, and burns with a green flame. It is very malleable, and can thus be beaten out into thin leaves; is very ductile, so as to admit of being drawn out into thin wires; and

its tenacity is only inferior to that of iron. It is a powerful conductor of electricity, and hence is employed in the construction of lightning-conductors, and in telegraph-wires for underground or submarine communication. C. is also employed largely in the sheathing of wooden vessels, and in the coinage. See also ALLOY.

C. forms many compounds. There are two oxides, the black oxide (Cu2O), and the red oxide (Cu). The latter is employed in colouring glass of a ruby. red tint. The green rust which forms on the surface of a C.-sheathed ship, and on C. coins and vessel which lie in moist places for some time, is a car bonate of C., and is due to the carbonic acid and oxygen of the air acting upon the C. in the presence of moisture. It is very poisonous, and hence any barnacles which may attach themselves to the sheathing are poisoned. The carbonate of C., under sold as a pigment. The subchloride of C., moistened the name of blue verditer, is largely prepared and and exposed to the air, yields the pigment known obtained by allowing acetic acid to act upon oxide as Brunswick green. There are several compounds of, which are commercially called blue and green verdigris. The sulphate of C., or blue vitriol oxide in sulphuric acid, and allowing the salt to (CuSO4.5H2O), is prepared by dissolving the black

crystallise out.

The crystals are large, and present

a fine blue colour. It is soluble in water, and is extensively used by the dyer and calico-printer for the production of several blue and green colours. The solution of blue vitriol is also employed in the preservation of timber from dry rot, and it forms a constituent of some writing inks.

Mineralogy.-Native C. is not of very rare occurrence; it is sometimes massive, or in grains, plates, &c.; sometimes crystallised in cubes or octahedrons; sometimes it assumes dendritic and other beautiful forms. Great masses of native C. have been found near Keweenaw Point, Lake Superior, one of which, 45 feet long, 22 feet wide, and nearly 8 feet deep, containing 90 per cent. of copper, weighed about 420 tons. The annual product is about 8000 tons. A C. schist is profitably wrought at Mansfeldt, in Germany, although it yields only one per cent. of copper. Among the most plentiful and valuable C. ores is the C. Pyrites already mentioned, or Yellow C. Ore; but there is a richer ore called Purple C. or Variegated C., or Bornite, also a compound of sulphur, C., and iron. Malachite and Azurite, both consisting essentially of carbonate of C., are valuable ores; as are some ores which are essentially composed of oxygen and C., particularly Red C. Ore (Cuprite) and Black C. Ore (Tenorite). Some ores of C. contain also silver, and some contain arsenic, antimony, &c. Gray C. Ore is very compound, containing silver, mercury, zinc, antimony, arsenic, iron, and sulphur. Atacamite, wronght as an ore of C. in South America, is composed of chloride of C. and hydrochlorate of copper.

COPPER INDIGO is an ore of copper found in spheroidal masses, of an indigo-blue col ur, in Thuringia and Vesuvius, and is very nearly pure sulphuret of copper. Its composition in 100 parts, is copper, 64; sulphur, 32}; iron, §; and lead, 1.

CO'PPERAS is the commercial term for the sulphate of iron. See IRON.

COPPERED, COPPERING, in Ship-building, are terms used in reference to the sheathing applied to the bottom. The copper employed for this purpose is in the form of sheets, varying from 18 to 32 ounces per square foot, and usually measuring 48 inches by 14. A layer of felt, paper, or coarse linen, is first applied to the planking; and the copper is uailed down upon it. So much of the

bottom as is immersed in the water is thus covered. The timbers are by this means protected from molluscs, cirrhopods, and weeds; and consequently the ship can sail quicker than if no such sheathing were applied. Some builders copper their ships up to the load-water line, while others go no higher than the light-load line; there being a difference of opinion whether the intermediate space, sometimes dry and sometimes wet, ought to expose a wood or a copper surface.

A copper-bottomed ship always ranks better at Lloyd's than one not so sheathed. The same is the case with a ship said to be copper-fastened; i. e., in which bolts of copper are used instead of iron in those parts of the ship immersed in water. Ships can be insured at a lower premium when thus provided. CO'PPERMINE RIVER-so named, in common with the mountains to the west of it, from the metallic products of the vicinity-enters a bay of the Arctic Ocean about lat. 68° N., and long. 116° W. Its overland discovery by Lieutenant Hearne, then of the Hudson's Bay Company's service, in June 1771, excited considerable interest, as incontestably proving that the supposed Strait of Anian, whatever might be the truth as to its westward terminus, had its eastward outlet, if any, only in the Icy Sea. The C. R. rises near a feeder of Great Bear Lake, which itself is tributary to the Mackenzie -the former of the diverging water-courses taking a vastly shorter route to the coast than the latter. Hence the C. R. is throughout little better than a series of falls and torrents, being thus, even without regard to its isolated position, but little available in itself for navigation.

CO'PPERPLATE PRINTING. See PRINTING. CO'PROLITES (from Gr. kopros, dung, and lithos, a stone), are the fossilised excrements of animals found in the Secondary and Tertiary strata of the earth's crust. Their true nature was first inferred from their occurrence in the bodies of several species of Ichthyosaurus, in the region where was situated the intestinal tube. It has been since shewn that they are the voidings chiefly of saurians and of sauroid fishes. They often contain portions of scales, bone, teeth, and shells, the indigestible parts of the food on which the animals lived. Occasionally, they may be found exhibiting the spiral twisting and other marks produced by the conformation of the intestinal tube, similar to what is noticed in the excrement of some living fishes. These peculiar markings obtained for them the name, when their true nature was unknown, of 'larch-cones' and 'bezoar-stones.' C. are found to contain a large quantity of phosphate of lime; and as this forms a valuable manure, the deposits containing them have been of late years largely quarried by the manufacturers of artificial manures.

COPS, COPING (Anglo-Sax. cop, Ger. kopf, the head). The merlons or rising parts of battlements are sometimes called cops, but the term coping is usually applied to the covering course of a wall,

which is made either sloping or round, so as to throw off water. Where the coping is of hewn stone, it is frequently ornamented with a circular Coping. moulding running along the top, and sometimes the angle at the top is simply taken off, to prevent it from being chipped.

COPSE, or COPPICE, a natural wood or plantation, of which the trees are cut over from time to time, without being allowed to attain the size of timber trees, sending up new shoots from their roots or stools. Some kinds of trees-as the firs are incapable of being treated in this manner, refusing to send up new shoots; but many-as the oak birch, chestnut, ash, elm, maple, alder, hazel, and willow-very readily do so, at least if they have not been allowed to attain too considerable a size before being cut over. C.-woods are sometimes planted chiefly to vary and beautify the landscape, but more generally with a view to profit, either owing to great local demand for their produce, or to peculiarities of soil and situation. It often happens, that owing to scantiness of soil or to unfavourable subsoil, oaks and other trees, after growing vigorously for a number of years, are arrested, and remain almost stationary in their growth. In such circumstances, it is advantageous to cut them over early, and to treat the plantation as a C., the former vigour being again manifested in the young shoots, and the land yielding in this way a greater return to its owner. Oak is much planted as C.-wood, in consequence of the demand for its bark: in some parts of Herefordshire, the trees are cut over every twelve years; but in the Highlands of Scotland, twenty-five or thirty years are often necessary for sufficient growth, nor is the bark thought to have attained its highest perfection till the stems are of this age. The largest pieces of the wood are used for making wheelspokes, and for other purposes of timber; the smaller portions for charcoal, and firewood. Ash is sometimes planted as C., with a view to the employment of the wood for handles of implements, hurdles, hoops, &c., the wood of the ash, even when very young, being highly valued for strength and elas ticity. Chestnut copses are planted in England to supply hop-poles. Hazel is a very common C.-wood, being in great demand for making crates, &c. Besides the cultivation of different kinds of willow or osier for basket-making, in which they are cut over annually, some of the species are cultivated as C., and cut every five, six, or seven years, for hoops, crates, &c.; the species which is deemed most suitable of all being Salix caprea. See WILLOW. In some countries, C.-wood is particularly valued for the regular supply of fuel which it affords.

In cutting C.-wood, care is taken to dress the stools so that water may not lodge in them and cause them to rot. The size to which the stems are allowed to attain before being cut, and the frequency of cutting, differ according to the different kinds, and the uses intended. Stems more than four inches thick are generally cut with the saw, but smaller stems with a curved bill, cutting upwards. Extensive copses are sometimes divided into portions, of which one is cut every year.

Ranunculacea. C. trifoliata is a native of the north CO'PTIS, a genus of plants of the natural order of Europe, Siberia, Greenland, Iceland, and North America. It grows in swamps. From its long, thread-like, golden-yellow rhizomes, it derives the name of Golden Thread. Its leaves have threa wedge-shaped leaflets, and its leafless stems bear each a solitary, rather pretty white flower.

COPTS, the Christian descendants of the ancient Egyptians. Various derivations have been given of the name, which, however, is most probably from the same root as E-gypt. The C. are in number about 150,000, only about a fourteenth of the popu lation of the country. There are about 10,00) of them in Cairo. They are not of great stature. have black eyes, and rather curly hair, and in a

number of points resemble the ancient Egyptians, from whom, also, they have inherited the custom of circumcision. They dress like the Moslems, but are generally distinguished by a black turban. Their character is in general gloomy, deceitful, and avaricious. They are very expert in calculations, and are therefore much employed as accountants and book-keepers, by which they have acquired a grest influence in the country, filling very important pos's. In religion they are generally monophysites (q v.) of the Jacobite sect; smaller sections of them, however, are united to the Greek and Roman Catholic churches. They ascribe their conversion aom heathenism to St Mark, whom they regard as the first patriarch of Alexandria. Their highest dignitary is the patriarch of Alexandria, whose residence, however, is in Cairo. Their other orders of clergy are bishops, archpriests, priests, deacons, and monks. The patriarch is named by his predecessor from among the monks of the convent of St Anthony, or chosen from among them by lot. He is not permitted to marry. He nominates the Metropolitan of Abyssinia. See ABYSSINIA. There are twelve bishops. The C. are very strict in their religious observances, and hate other Christian sects even more than they hate the Moslems. They baptise by immersion; practise unction, exorcism, and auricular confession; and celebrate the Lord's Supper with leavened bread which has been dipped in wine. They keep Friday with great strictness as a fast-day. They have many schools, but only for boys, who learn the Psalms, Gospels, and Apostolic Epistles in Arabic, and then the Gospels and Epistles in Coptic. The Coptic, however, is not grammatically taught, and is not now a spoken language, having been everywhere supplanted by the Arabic. It has not been spoken in Lower Egypt since the 10th c., but lingered for some centuries longer in Upper Egypt. It is, however, still used by the C. in their religious services, but the lessons, after being read in Coptic, are explained in Arabic. The Coptic literature consists in great part of lives of saints and homilies, with a few Gnostic works. The alphabet was borrowed from the Greeks at the time of the introduction of Christianity, with the addition of a few letters. There are two principal dialects of the language the Sahidic or Upper Egyptian, and the Memphitic or Lower Egyptian, which is sometimes exclusively called Coptic. A third dialect, the Bashmuric, of which only a few remains exist, was spoken in the Delta, and is interesting from its points of resemblance to the language of the hieroglyphics.

CO'PULA (Lat. band) is a term employed in Logic to designate the word which unites the two notions of a sentence-viz.: the subject and predicate into one judgment or thought. Thus, in the sentence 'Ar; is long,' art is the subject, long the predicat and is the copula. The C. is either expressed &part by some part of the verb 'to be,' as in the above sentence, or it is contained in the word expressing the predicate, as, 'The flower blooms,' i. e., is blooming.

COPY, in the Fine Arts, is a reproduction of a work, whether painting, statue, or engraving, not by the original artist. A C. made by the master himself is called a repetition (in French, a doublette). It is said that copies are of three degrees: first, where the original is mechanically imitated in its minutest details (this is always done when an engraving is to be obtained); second, where only the principal traits are imitated; and, third, where the general idea merely is borrowed. A C. of a statue, or other piece of sculpture, taken from a mould, is not called a C., but a Cast (q. v.).

CO'PYHOLD, a species of estate or right of property in land, peculiar to the law of England, although resembling in many particulars the fen rights of Scotland. C. is expressed technically as tenure by copy of court-roll, at the will of the lord, according to the custom of the manor.' This means, that it is tenure of land, being part of a manor, the title being evidenced by the courtrolls of the manor, and the right of the owner being in conformity with the immemorial customs of the manor. The addition, at the will of the lord,' serves only as a memorial of the derivation of this species of estate from the estates granted in old times to the bondsmen, or Villeins (q. v.), which were of course resumable at the pleasure of the lord. But the will of the lord is now absolutely controlled by the custom of the manor, which forms the law of the tenure; and as this custom must be immemorial, i. e., extending to the reign of Richard II, no C. can now be created.

The custom of each manor may vary in important particulars. In some, the C. lands are held for life only; in some, they descend according to particular rules of their own; in most, however, they descend according to the ordinary rules of succession. But the custom, whatever it may be, cannot be altered by the holder of the C.; he cannot, for instance, entail his land unless the custom warrants him.

An important point, also dependent entirely upon special custom, is the amount of the money-payments due by the copyholder to the lord of the manor. These are divided into quit-rents, an annual payment of the nature of the Scottish feu-duty; fines, payments on particular occasions, such as alienation or succession; and heriots, or the best piece of personal property, to which, on the death of the copyholder, the lord becomes entitled. As to fines, it may be observed, that the custom may either fix the amount, or it may leave them to be at the pleasure of the lord; but as the courts of law require that all customs, even when indefinite, shall be reasonable, they have fixed the extreme amount that can be exacted at two years' rent of the land.

The practical distinction of most importance, however, between freehold and C. land, is the mode in which it must be conveyed. An ordinary conveyance is ineffectual in regard to C., and indeed would operate, like other attempts to break through the custom which forms the title, as a forfeiture. The course adopted is almost identical with the Scottish resignation. The owner comes to the steward of the manor, and by a symbolical delivery, according as the custom may prescribe, surrenders the land to the lord of the manor, in order that it may be granted again to such person, and on such The steward, by a repetition of the symbolical terms as are desired, and as the custom authorises. delivery, transfers the C. to the person in question, in terms of the surrender; and he then pays the customary fine, and takes the oath of fealty. This is called conveyance by surrender and admit

tance.

In the case of an heir succeeding, there is no surrender, but there is admittance only upon payment of the customary fine, and it is enforced by a customary penalty. A mortgage is effected by a surrender upon condition that the money is repaid, and the admittance takes place only in event of failure of payment. A C. may, in like manner, be devised by will, the devisee being admitted on the death of the devisor. On the same principles are effected a conveyance to trustees, and a conveyance by a tenant in tail, so as to bar the entail.

The inconveniences and loss accruing through the variety of customs to which C. lands are subject have led the legislature to make provision for their gradual extinction. A board is established, under