CHRYSOPS-CHUB. still coarser, into snuff-boxes, seals, cups, &c.—The himself publicly imploring the pardon of Heaven C. of the ancients was a stone of yellowish-green for the crime of his parents, Arcadius and Eudoxia. colour, but it is not certain what it was. CHRY'SOPS. See CLEG. The Greek Church celebrates the festival of C. on the 13th of November; the Roman, on the 27th of January. In his Homilies (Thomas Aquinas said CHRYSOSTOM, JOHN (Gr. Chrysostomos, he would not give in exchange those on St Matthew golden-month; so named from the splendour of for the whole city of Paris) C. displays superior his eloquence), was born at Antioch in 347 A. D. powers of exegesis. In general, he rejects the alleHis mother Anthusa was a pious woman, wholly gorical system of interpretation, and adheres to the devoted to her son, who grew up under her loving grammatical, basing his doctrines and sentiments instructions into an earnest, gentle, and serious on a rational apprehension of the letter of Scrip youth, passing through, as Neander significantly ture. He is, however, far from being a bibliolater. observes, none of those wild, dark struggles with He recognised the presence of a human element sinful passions which left an ineffaceable impress in the Bible as well as a divine; and instead of on the soul of Augustine, and gave a sombre attempting, by forced and artificial hypotheses, colouring to his whole theology. He studied to reconcile what he thought irreconcilable in oratory under Libanius, a heathen rhetorician; soon Scripture statements, he frankly admitted the excelled his teacher; and, after devoting some time existence of contradictions, and shaped his theory to the study of philosophy, retired to a solitary of inspiration accordingly. But his greatest and place in Syria, and there read the Holy Scrip- noblest excellence lay in that power, springing from tures. The ascetic severity of his life and studies the fervour and holiness of his heart, by which the brought on an illness which forced him to return to consciences of the proud, the worldly, and the Antioch, where he was ordained deacon by Bishop profligate were awakened, and all were made to Meletius in 381, and presbyter by Bishop Flavianus feel the reality of the gospel message. The surin 386. The eloquence, earnestness, and practical name C. was first applied some time after his death, tone of his preaching excited the attention of Jews, and, as it is supposed, by the sixth oecumenical heathens, and heretics, and secured for him the council in 680. C's works are very numerous, and reputation of the chief orator of the Eastern Church. consist of, 1st, Homilies, on parts of Scripture and In 397, the eunuch Eutropius, minister of the points of doctrine; 2d, Commentaries, on the whole Emperor Arcadius, who had been struck by the Bible (part of which has perished); 3d, Epistles, bold and brilliant preaching of C., elevated him to addressed to various people; 4th, Treatises, on the episcopate of Constantinople. C. immediately different subjects (such as Providence, the Priestbegan to restrict the episcopal expenditure in which hood, &c.); and 5th, Liturgies. Of these the most his predecessors had indulged, and bestowed so valuable, as well as the most studied, are the large a portion of his revenues on hospitals and Homilies which are held to be superior to everyother charities, that he gained the surname of thing of the kind in ancient Christian literature. 'John the Almoner.' He also endeavoured to reform the lives of the clergy, and sent missionaries into Scythia, Persia, Palestine, and other lands. His faithful discharge of his duties, especially in reproof of vices, excited the enmity of the patriarch Theophilus and of the Empress Eudoxia, who succeeded in deposing and banishing him from the capital. He was soon recalled, to be banished again shortly afterwards. He now went to Nicæa, in Bithynia; but was from thence removed to the little town of Cucusus, in the desert parts of the abated. He laboured for the conversion of the Persians and Goths in the neighbourhood, and wrote the seventeen letters (or rather moral essays) to Olympias, to whom he also addressed a treatise on the proposition-None can hurt the man who will not hurt himself.' The emperor, enraged by the general sympathy expressed towards C. by all true Christians, gave orders that he should be more remotely banished to a desolate tract on the Euxine, at the very verge of the Eastern Roman empire. Accordingly, the old man was made to travel on foot, and with his bare head exposed to a burning This cruelty proved fatal. C. died on the way at Comanum, in Pontus, September 14, 407 A.D., blessing God with his dying lips. The news of his death excited much sorrow among all pious Christians, for C. was a man who drew the hearts of his fellows after him; a lovable, manly Christian, hating lies, worldliness, hypocrisy, and all manner of untruthfulness, with that honest warmth of temper CHUB (Leuciscus Cephalus), a fish of the far ily which all vigorous people relish. A sect sprang Cyprinidae, of the same genus with the roach, dace, up after his death, or martyrdom as they conceived bleak, minnow, &c. See LEUCISCUS. The colour it, called Johannists, who refused to acknowledge is bluish-black on the upper parts, passing into his successors; nor did they return to the general silvery white on the belly; the cheeks and gillcommunion till 438, when the Archbishop Proclus covers rich golden yellow. The C. rarely attains prevailed on the Emperor Theodosius II. to bring a weight exceeding 5 lbs. It is plentiful in many back the body of the saint to Constantinople, of the rivers of England, and occurs in some of where it was solemnly interred, the emperor those of the south-west of Scotland. In the easterL Taurus Mountains. Even here his zeal was not Bun. The most correct Greek edition of C.'s works is that by Henry Savil (8 vols., Eton, 1613); and the most complete Greek and Latin edition is that by Montfaucon (13 vols., Par. 1718-1738; republished in 1834-1840). The best authority in regard to C. is Neander, who, besides treating of his life and labours in his Kirchengeschichte, has published a life of this eminent Father. CHRY'SOTYPE (Gr. chrysos, gold; typos, impression), a photographic process invented by Sir John Herschel, and depending for its success on the reduction of a persalt of iron to the state of Protosalt by the action of light, and the subsequent precipitation of metallic gold upon this protosalt of iron. The process is conducted as follows: Good of iron of such a strength as to dry into a good paper is immersed in a solution of ammonio-citrate yellow colour, without any tinge of brown in it. It faint impression is obtained. is then exposed to light under a negative until a A neutral solution of chloride of gold is then brushed over the paper, when the picture immediately appears, and is be freely washed in several changes of water, fixed rapidly developed to a purple tint. It should then with a weak solution of iodide of potassium, again thoroughly washed, and dried. The action of the iodide of potassium is to convert any unaltered chloride of gold into a soluble double iodide of gold and potassium, thus rendering the picture permanent. CHUBB CHURCH. parts of North America three species of the same family bear the same name; these are Semotilus corporalis, S. argenteus, and S. rotheus. In the Southern States, a perch (Micropterus salmoides) is also called chub. The S. corporalis is found over most of the Chub. continent east of the Rocky Mountains. S. rhotheus is a more handsome and active fish, affording better food and sport than the last. Its range is eastern. The C. rises well at a fly, and takes freely a variety of baits. The same baits and the same means of fishing may be employed as for the barbel and bream. The C. is very fond, moreover, of slugs, grasshoppers, cockchafers, and humble-bees. The latter two are to be used either naturally, by means of dibbing or dapping, or, being imitated, may be used artificially, and cast as a fly. The best flies for the C. are large red, black, and brown palmers, with the hackles laid on thickly. The best places to fly-fish for C. are close under overhanging boughs at the sides of streams, or against piles, or other places where they can get some shelter, for the C. is somewhat shy and easily alarmed. He is a bold riser, and when he comes at a fly seldom fails to hook himself. Of all the baits for bottom-fishing, he prefers greaves, cheese, and worms; and the fatter the bait the better he likes it. He will occasionally run at a minnow, and is often taken on a spinning bait. The C. spawns in May, and comes into condition again by the end of June or early in July; bites best, and is in the best condition for bottom-fishing, in October and November. When first hooked, he makes a great dash, but he very soon gives in. Some years ago, the scales of the C. were in much request, in common with those of the bleak, for artificial pearl-makers. CHUBB, THOMAS, an English rationalist, who wrote on religious questions during the first half of the last century, was born at East Harnham, in Wiltshire, in 1679. He received but a meagre education in youth, and after an apprenticeship to a leather glove and breeches maker in Salisbury, he became a tallow-chandler, in which business he continued to the end of his life. His first work, published in 1715, was entitled Supremacy of God the Father Vindicated. Besides this, he wrote a multitude of treatises on other religious subjects. Among these may be mentioned: A Discourse on Reason, as a sufficient Guide in matters of Religion; On Sincerity; On Future Judgment and Eternal Punishment; Inquiry about Inspiration of the New Testament; and Doctrine of Vicarious Suffering and Intercession Refuted. C. died in 1746. CHUCK-WILL'S-WIDOW (Antrostomus Caro linensis), a bird of the Goatsucker family (Capri mulgidae), a native of the southern parts of the United States. It has received its singular name from its note, which resembles these words or syllables articulated with great distinctness, and is repeated like that of the cuckoo, or of its own congener, the Whip-poor-will (q. v.). CHU-LAN. See CHLORANTHACEÆ. CHUMBUL, a river rising in the Vindhyan Mountains, which form the southern limit of the Jasin of the Ganges. Its source, at a height of 2019 feet above the sea, is in lat. 22° 26' N., and long. 75° 45' E. During a generally north-east course of 570 miles, it receives many tributaries on both sides, till, in lat. 26° 30′ N., and long. 79° 19′ E., it enters the Jumna from the right, with such a volume of water that, when itself flooded, it has been known to raise the united stream 7 or 8 feet in twelve hours. The C. is remarkable, here and there, for the wildness of its current and the picturesque character of its banks. CHUNARGU'RH, a fortified town on the right bank of the Ganges, 16 miles to the south-west of Benares, in lat. 25° 5' N., and long. 83° E. It is in the district of Mirzapore, and sub-presidency of the North-west Provinces. The population of the native quarter is stated at 11.058. The fortress, which occupies the summit of a sandstone rock, contains the commandant's house, the hospital, the prison, and an ancient palace, with a deeply excavated well of indifferent water. The river in front is navigable at all seasons for vessels of 50 or 60 tons. CHUQUISA'CA, or SU'CRÉ, the capital of Bolivia or Upper Peru, in lat. 19° 20′ S., and long. 65° 30′ W. It is situated on a table-land about 9000 feet above the sea, and has a pleasant climate. The town is well built, has a cathedral of great magniticence, a university, a college of arts and sciences, and a mining-school. C. was founded in 1538 by Pedro Auzures, an officer of Pizarro's, on the site of an old Peruvian town called Choque Chaka,' or Bridge of Gold,' the treasures of the Incas having passed through it on their way to Cuzco.' At one time, C. bore the name of La-Plata, on account of the rich silver-mines in its vicinity. Pop. (in 1858) 23,979. C. gives name to a territory containing about 150,000 inhabitants, of whom about 35,000 are Indians. It has five silver-mines in operation; and in it are magnificent ruins of unknown origin. The second name is derived from the general who, in December 1824, fought and won the last great battle for colonial independence at Ayacucho. CHURCH, a word which signifies either a place of Christian worship, or a collective body of Christian people. It is, in all probability, derived from the Greek adjective kyriakos (from krios, lord), the place of worship having been called the Lord's house, and the worshippers the Lord's people. The Scottish kirk, the German kirche, &c., are merely different forms of it. Under the terms APSE and BASILICA (q. v.), we have already explained that the earliest ecclesiastical structures of the Christians were copied or adapted not from the heathen or Jewish temple, as might have been anticipated, but from that peculiar combination of a hall of justice and a market-place to which the name basilica was given by the ancients. The reason of this selection is probably to be found, not so much in the spirit of opposition which no doubt existed between Christians and heathens, as in the essentially different conceptions which they formed of the character and objects of public worship. The rites of heathendom were performed exclusively by and the temple itself, which was highted only from the priest, the people remaining without the temple; the door, or by the few lamps which burned around the image of the god, was regarded not as a receptacle for worshippers, but as the abode of the deity. The dark mysterious character which thus belonged to it, rendered it equally unsuitable for the performance of liturgical services in which the people were to participate, and for the delivery of those public addresses which from the beginning were employed as a means of Christian teaching and exhortation. To such purposes the prætor's courtroom, with its surroundings, were readily adapted, CHURCH. by the few simple alterations which we have de- NT N Church: ST number of altars; and it is not unusual for side chapels to be placed at different places along the aisles. These usually contain the tombs of the founder, and of other benefactors to, or dignitaries connected with, the church. The extent to which these adjuncts exist depends on the size and importance of the C., and they are scarcely ever alike in two churches, either in number, form, or position. Vestries for the use of the priests and choristers generally exist in connection with the choir. Along the sides of the choir are ranged richly ornamented seats or stalls, usually of carved oak, surmounted with tracery, arches, and pinnacles; and amongst these seats, in the case of a bishop's church, the highest and most conspicuous is the so-called cathedra, or seat for the bishop, from which the cathedral takes its name. The larger English cathedral and abbey-churches have usually a chapter-house attached to them, which is of various forms, most commonly octagonal, and is often one of the richest and most beautiful portions of the whole edifice. On the continent, chapter-houses are not so common, the Chapter (q. v.) being usually held in the cathedral itself, or in one of the chapels attached to it. Cloisters (q. v.) are also frequent, and not unusually the sides of those which are furthest removed from the C. or chapter-house, are enclosed by other buildings connected with the establishment, such as a library, and places of residence for some of the officials of the cathedral. It is here that, in Roman Catholic churches, the hall, dormitories, and kitchens for the monks are commonly placed. Beneath the C. there is frequently a Crypt (q. v.). In some cathedral churches, the crypt is in reality a second underground C. of great size and beauty. The Baptistery (q. v.) is another adjunct to the C., though frequently forming a building altogether detached. Most of the parts of the C. which we have mentioned may be traced on the annexed ground-plan of Durham Cathedral; but it must not be supposed that their position is always that which is there represented. position of the nave, choir, or chancel, aisles, and transepts are nearly invariable, but the other portions vary, and are scarcely alike in two churches. The Churches are of five classes-metropolitan, cathedral, collegiate, conventual, and parish churchesOver the point at which and of these the first are, generally speaking, the the arms or transepts inter- most, and the last the least elaborate. In ordinary sect the body of the cross, a language, any building set apart for religious ordicentral tower or spire is very nances is called a church, though when of a minor frequently erected. From this kind it is more usually designated a chapel. After central tower, or, if the tower a long period of neglect and poverty of taste, the or towers are situated else-building of churches in a superior style, emulative where, from this central point, of the older styles of architecture, has greatly C=Choir; N. T = North the portion of the building revived, not only as regards the Church of England, Transept: S. T. South which runs westward, to where but the Church of Scotland and nearly all dissenting Transept; N. = Nave. the Galilee or entrance chapel, bodies. or, in other instances, the great entrance-door is situated, is called the Nave (from navis, a ship), whilst the portion which runs eastward to where the altar, or high-altar, if there be several, is placed, is called the Choir. In the larger and more complete churches, the nave, and frequently also the choir, are divided longitudinally by two rows of pillars into three portions, the portion at each side being generally somewhat narrower and less lofty than that in the centre. These side portions are called the aisles of the nave, or of the choir, as the case may be. In some churches, the aisles are continued along the transepts, thus running round the whole C.; in others, there are double aisles to the nave, or to both nave and choir, or even to nave, choir, and transept. Behind, or to the east of the choir, is situated the Ladye's Chapel, or Chapel of the Virgin, with sometimes a As applied to a collective body of Christian people, the word C. is the translation and equivalent of the Greek word ecclesia (Lat. ecclesia, Fr. église), used in the New Testament. It is common among Protestants to distinguish between the visible and the invisible C.-the invisible C. consisting of all those who are savingly or spiritually united to Christ, that is, of all true believers; the visible C. consisting of all who profess the religion of Jesus Christ. Roman Catholics do not in the same manner acknowledge the distinction between the visible and the invisible C., but regard a connection with the hierarchy, and consequent participation of ordinances, as establishing a connection with the true C. and with Christ. Protestants regard the C. as subsisting from age to age, in virtue of the authority of Christ, and through the faith of individual believers and their confession of him: Roman an employment of the term C. to designate the | Christian Church, besides the ministration of word hierarchy alone, which is contrary to the principles and sacraments, to secure on the part of its officeof the Reformation, although a tendency to it may bearers and members a faithful adherence to their be observed in some Protestant churches. It has profession and a corresponding blamelessness of life. been usual for Protestants to designate by the term It rests upon the authority of Christ, and at the C. the collective body of Christians in a particular same time necessarily arises, in some form of it, country, distinguished by the name of that country; out of the very constitution of the church as a the greater number of Protestants (Episcopalians society. Among the early Christians, it soon. and Presbyterians) believing that such a portion of assumed forms of great severity towards offenders, the universal C. may warrantably be associated especially towards the Lapsed (q. v.). At a later under a common government; and in countries period, the discipline of the church was chiefly where religious liberty exists, diversities of opinion exercised with respect to persons accused of heresy on points of doctrine and C. government have given and schism. The penances of the Church of rise to the existence of separate Christian associa-Rome have long formed an important part of its tions, distinguished by names generally indicative of some of the peculiarities which characterise them; but these, however much they may differ on many points, do not in general hesitate to recognise each other as belonging to the universal visible C. of Christ, whilst they retain in common the same great first principles of the Christian faith, and particularly the belief in one God and in the three persons of the Godhead, the incarnation of the Son of God, the atonement by Jesus Christ, and the work of the Holy Spirit. The term C., however, is regarded by Independents (q. v.) or Congregationalists, as more strictly applicable to those who are united as worshippers in a particular place of worship, partaking of the Lord's Supper together, and exercising discipline and C. government among themselves. CHURCH, STATES OF THE See PAPAL STATES. CHURCH-DISCIPLINE (Disciplina ecclesiastica) includes all the means employed by the discipline, and therewith its Indulgences (q. v.) are closely connected, as well as its doctrine and rule of Auricular Confession (see CONFESSION). In the Protestant churches, public confession of sins by which public scandal has been given, and submission to public rebuke, are sometimes required. Practices more analogous to those of the primitive church were established in many churches after the Reformation, but in general have fallen greatly, or entirely, into disuse. The power of exclusion from the Lord's Supper, and from the rights and privileges of church membership, is, however, generally retained and exercised, until, by profession of repentance, and by reformation of life, the cause of such exclusion is removed :_ and ministers or other office-bearers are, upon offence given in their doctrine or conduct, suspended from their functions, or altogether deposed from their office. The exercise of C. D. belongs more or less exclusively to a hierarchy, or to the office-bearers CHURCH GOVERNMENT-CHURCH RATES. assembled in church-courts, or to the members of each congregation, according as the church is Episcopalian, Presbyterian, or Independent in its church-government. There is an increasing tendency among Christians in general, to scrutinise closely the claim of right to exercise C. D., and the limits within which it may be exercised. wrote about the middle of the 2d c., has transmitted to us some very imperfect memorials of these early times; but the first proper ecclesiastical history is that of Eusebius of Cæsarea (324). This work was continued to the 5th c. by Socrates Scholasticus, Hermias Sozomenus, and Theodoret. Similar compilations were executed by Lactantius, Epiphanius, Hieronymus, Theodoret of Cyrus, Philostorgius, and CHURCH GOVERNMENT. The Christian Zosimus. In the 6th c., the chief ecclesiastical Church, like every other society, must have a cer- historians are-Theodorus Lector, Evagrius, and tain constitution and rules according to which its Nicephorus Callistius; in the 8th, the Venerable affairs are administered. It is disputed, however, Bede and Paul Warnefried; in the 9th, Theophanes among Christians, how far this constitution has been Confessor, Claudius of Turin, Haymo of Halberstadt, defined, or these rules prescribed by divine autho- Scotus Erigena, and Hinkmar of Rheims; in the rity, and how far they have been left to the discre- 12th and 13th, Photius, Simeon Metaphrastes, tion of men. The form of C. G. depends primarily Theophylact, Matthew Paris, Albert of Strasburg, on the idea entertained of the constitution of the and Ptolemy of Lucca; in the 15th, Laurentius church. Congregationalists, or Independents (q. v.), Valla is the most conspicuous name. Protestant accordingly place all C. G. in the hands of the writers were the first to treat C. H. in a critical members of the congregation and the office-bearers and scientific manner. This was natural, for their whom they have elected. This theory of C. G. is position as apparent schismatics compelled them to maintained by many Baptists and others, who, for vindicate historically the changes which they had various reasons, assume different denominations.- wrought in the character of the church. Hence Episcopalians and Presbyterians agree that many their writings were of an apologetic and polemical congregations are to be united under a common cast. The first work of this kind was the Magdegovernment; but this, according to Presbyterians, burg Centuries (see CENTURY), published by Matthias is properly carried on by ministers and elders of Flacius. Special histories of the Reformation were these congregations meeting for this purpose on a composed by Sleidan and Seckendorf. In the 17th footing of equality; whilst, according to Episcopa-c., Calixtus distinguished himself in this department, lians, it is more or less absolutely in the hands of and after him Thom. Illig, Adam Rechenberg, and bishops, who are superior to the mere pastors of Thomasius. The new life that awoke in Germany congregations. See EPISCOPACY and PRESBYTERI- towards the middle of the 18th c., produced a multitude of church-historians, of whom we can only afford to mention Arnold, C. M. Pfaff, Mosheim, Semler, and J. Matth. Schröckh; while in still more recent times, Marheineke, Danz, Neander, Gieseler, and Hagenbach, have achieved the highest distinction in the same sphere of labour. But others besides the Lutheran divines have rendered valuable services to church history. The Reformed Church boasts the eminent names of Du Moulin, Joh. Dallaus, Blondel, Hottinger, Spanheim, Turretin, Venema, Jablonski, and recently, D'Aubigné; while among Englishmen, Usher, Pearson, Bingham, Lardner, and recently, Milman and Maurice, have Scotland has few won a distinguished place. names, the chief being Calderwood, Wodrow, M'Crie, and recently Cunningham. In the Roman Catholic Church, since the period of the Reformation, ecclesiastical historians have rarely manifested a dispassionate and philosophic spirit. They have appeared mainly in the character of defenders of the papacy. The greatest names in C. H. in Catholic France are Tillemont, Bossuet, Bayle, Du Pin, Thomassin, and Fleury. Among the Italians may be mentioned Orsi, Saccharelli, Pallavicini, Guicciardini, and Muratori; and among the Roman Catholics of Ger many, Dannenmayr, Count Stolberg, Ritter, Hortig, Döllinger, &c. ANISM. CHURCH HISTORY, or ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. The history of the Christian religion and church forms one of the most important parts of the general history of mankind, and is intimately connected not only with the political history of the world, but with the history of philosophy, of literature, and of civilisation. The sources and authorities are extremely various, and their due appreciation often requires as much judgment as their exploration requires toil. C. H. is either general -embracing a view of the affairs of the church in the whole world from the beginning to the present day—or particular, relating to some particular country, or time, or portion of the church. By some authors, it has been treated chiefly with regard to the outward affairs of the church; and by others, with reference to doctrine, morals, and the evidences of spiritual life; whilst others still have devoted their attention chiefly to the forms of worship, the constitution of the church, and other things generally comprehended under the name of Ecclesiastical Antiquities. All these, of course, have important relations to each other. The earliest writers of C. H. were in general mere chroniclers, following the order of time; in the great work of the Magdeburg Centuriators, a method was adopted, of which there had been previous examples, and which afterwards became frequent, of treating each century separately, the centuries being subdivided according to convenience of subjects; but arrangements less mechanical and arbitrary have been adopted by the most eminent modern authors. With much diversity on minor points, there is a general agreement in dividing the whole history of the church into three great periods: the first, from our Saviour to the time of Constantine; the second from that time to the Reformation; and the third, from the Reformation to the present day. The earliest facts of C. H. are to be learned only from the New Testament, after which, however, the epistles and other writings of the apostolic and other primitive fathers, afford sources of information, unfortunately very scanty; Hegesippus, who For the benefit of the English reader, it may be stated that the extensive, profound, and philosophic work of Dr Augustus Neander has been translated from the original German into English, and is published in 10 vols. by Bohn. CHURCH RATES, in England, a tax or assessment laid on the parishioners and occupiers of land within a parish, by a majority of their own body in vestry assembled, for the purpose of upholding and repairing the fabric of the church and the belfry, the bells, seats, and ornaments, the churchyard fence, and the expenses (other than those of maintaining the minister) incident to the celebration of divine service. The parishioners are convened for this purpose by the Church-wardens (q. v.). The Chancel (q. v.) being regarded as belonging peculiarly to the clergy, the expense of maintaining it is |