CHURCH ROAD-CHURCHILL.

CHURCHING OF WOMEN-CHYLE.

therough reprobacy has naturally, though unfairly, led to injustice being done to his poetical abilities, which were very considerable.

CHURCHING OF WOMEN, a religious usage prevailing in the Christian Church from an early period, of women, on their recovery after childbearing, going to church to give thanks. It appears to have been borrowed from the Jewish law (Lev. xii. 6). In the church of the early ages, it was accompanied with various rites; and in the Church of Rome and Greek Church, it is imperative. the Church of England, also, a service for the C. of W. finds a place in the Liturgy. By the Presbyterian and Independent churches of Britain, it is rejected, as having no scripture warrant.

In

CHU'RCHYARD. See BURIAL, CEMETERY. CHURN, a machine for agitating milk or cream for the production of butter. The principle of the operation is considered in the article on Butter. Of the great variety of forms that have been given to the machine, it is very difficult to determine which deserves the preference. It is obvious that the more thorough and uniform the agitation, the more completely will the butter be separated from the milk. The consistency and colour of the butter are also elements in judging of the relative merits of churns. The temperature of the air and the milk affect the butter in these respects. During summer, that of the milk should not exceed 62°, and in very hot weather may be under 60°. During cold weather, the milk should be about 2° higher when put into the churn. The speed at which the operation is performed also influences the result.

To all forms of churns, power other than manual can be, and is applied. In some parts of the continent of Europe, and in America, the dog is employed in churning by means of a contrivance Horse-power is in very like a squirrel's box. general use in large dairies in Great Britain. In very exceptional cases, steam-power is used.

CHU'RRUS. See HEMP.

CHUSA'N, an island on the east coast of China, 40 miles north-east from Ningyo, in 30° 40′ N. lat., and 121° 48′ E. long., of an oblong shape, and about 50 miles in circumference. It is mountainous; but has many fertile valleys, with a plentiful supply of water, and is very carefully cultivated by the hardy and independent people by whom it is inhabited. Mr Fortune was struck with the richness of its flora. Azaleas clothe the mountains; clematises, roses, and honeysuckles grow in great luxuriance. The camphor and tallow tree, and many varieties of bamboo, are found in the valleys. Tea is culti vated to some extent on the hill-sides. For threefourths of the year, the climate is temperate. June, July, and August are the hot months. In August, the thermometer averages 83°, but in January and February it is often as low as 20°. Ting-hai, the capital, a walled town about two miles in circumference, containing a fine specimen of Buddhist temple-architecture, surrendered to the British forces, July 5, 1840, and was retaken by them (having been evacuated the previous February) October 1, 1841. At the close of the war, the island was delivered up to the Chinese. In 1860, it was again occupied by British troops, but, by the convention of Pekin, is to be evacuated.

CHUSAN ISLANDS, a group of islands scat. tered round the one described above. The most remarkable of these is the sacred island of Pu-tu, lying east from Chusan. It is covered with Buddhist temples, pagodas, and monasteries, which latter are inhabited by a great number of Bonzes, as the Chinese priests are called. The island is devoted exclusively to religious purposes, and no layman is allowed to reside upon it.

Anthony's American Atmospheric Churn. CHUTNEE, or CHUTNY, an East Indian condiment, very largely used in India and to a conTrials instituted to test the relative merits of siderable and increasing extent in Great Britain. churns have failed to settle which is the best Indian C. is a compound of mangoes, chillies or form for actual use in the dairy; for the same capsicum (q. v.), and lime-juice, with some portion machine under different conditions does not always of other native fruits, such as tamarinds, &c., the yield the same result. The oldest form is the flavour being heightened by garlic. It is sometimes upright or plunge churn. There is a general pre- manufactured for sale in England, but not in any judice in favour of this form of C., on the ground quantity. Families occasionally make it for their that the butter is more completely separated and own use, and employ the following ingredients: of better quality. Its great defect is that the opera- Chillies, 1-1 lb.; apples, 1 lb.; red tamarinds, tion, being generally performed by hand, is fatiguing. 2 lbs.; sugar-candy, 1 lb.; fresh ginger root, 1 lb.; Recent improvements have chiefly aimed at ease in garlic, lb.; sultana raisins, 14 lb.; fine salt, working, and a saving of time. The original barrel lb.; distilled vinegar, 5 bottles. The chillies are C., with a rotatory motion, like a grindstone, which motion was reversed every few rounds, has fallen from its once high repute into comparative neglect. An improvement on the barrel C. was the making of the barrel stationary, the milk being agitated by internal apparatus fixed on a horizontal spindle which is turned by a winch handle. Barrel churns, sometimes of monster size, are generally used in large dairies in Holland. For small or moderate

to be soaked for an hour in the vinegar, and the whole ground with a stone and muller to a paste.

CHYLE. The food undergoes various changes in the alimentary canal, which will be fully noticed in the article on DIGESTION. One of these changes is its conversion in the stomach into a pulpy mass termed chyme. The chyme, which passes onward into the small intestine, is acted upon by the bile, pancreatic fluid, and intestinal juice, and through

CHYLIFEROUS SYSTEM-CICADA.

their influences is separated into the chyle, which is absorbed or sucked up by the lacteals (q. v.) and into matters unfit for nutrition, which ultimately find their way out of the system by the intestinal canal. The mode in which this nutritious C. is taken up by vessels distributed over the small intestines, and the changes which it undergoes before it is converted into true blood, are described in the articles LACTEALS, THORACIC DUCT, and NUTRITION. We shall here merely notice its leading physical and chemical properties. When obtained from the thoracic duct of an animal that has been killed while the process of digestion was going on (especially if it had taken fatty food), the C. is a white, milky-looking, or yellowish fluid, with a faintly alkaline reaction. Like the blood, it coagulates in about ten minutes after its abstraction from the body of the animal; and in about three hours a small but distinct gelatinous clot is separated from the serous fluid of the chyle.

On examining C. under the microscope, we find that it contains enormous numbers of minute molecules (probably consisting of fat), together with nucleated cells, which are termed the chyle-corpuscles, and are apparently identical with the white or colourless blood-cells. The chemical constituents of C. are much the same as those of blood; fibrin, albumen, fat, extractive matters, and salts being the most important.

1827, his Delle Storie di Chieri Libri IV. King Charles Albert-with whom he was always a great favourite-frequently employed him in diplomatic service, and in 1848, when Italy rose against the Austrians, appointed C. extraordinary royal commissioner at Venice. During the same year, he was created a senator of the kingdom. When Charles Albert-after the unfortunate issue of the war-went to live in voluntary exile at Oporto, C. was sent by the Sardinian senate to induce him to return. He wrote an account of his unsuccessful mission, entitled Ricordi d'una Missione in Portogallo al Re Carlo Alberto (1850). During his public career, however, C. did not neglect his early and favourite pursuits. In 1839, he published his Della Economia Politica del Medio Evo; in 1840, his Storia della Monarchia di Savoia; in 1844, his Storia e Descrizione della Badia d'Altacomba; and in 1847, his Storia di Torino. But the new life and energy which Sardinia began to manifest under Victor Emmanuel had its claims on his public usefulness. In 1850 he was appointed Superintendent-general of Customs, and while occupying this office introduced several important reforms. Subsequently, he was intrusted with full powers to negotiate a treaty of commerce with France, in which he distinguished himself notably by his advocacy of the principles of free trade. In 1852 he was made Minister of Public Instruction, and, in 1855, Minister of Foreign Affairs. When Cavour took this department into

CHYLIFEROUS SYSTEM. See LACTEALS his own hands, C. became first secretary of the king,

and THORACIC DUCT.

CHYME. See CHYLE and DIGESTION.

CIBBER, COLLEY, was born on the 6th November 1671, in London. He was sent to the free school at Grantham, in Lincolnshire, in 1682. Five years thereafter, he returned to London, and in 1688 was a volunteer in the forces raised by the Earl of Devonshire in support of the Prince of Orange. He afterwards conceived a passion for the stage, and after performing gratuitously for several months, he succeeded in obtaining an engagement at 108. per week, which was raised to 15s.; and on the commendation of Congreve, who had witnessed his performance of Lord Touchwood, five additional shillings per week were added. Incited by this magnificent success, he, at the age of 22, married Miss Shore, to the great rage of her father, who revenged himself by spending the greater portion of his fortune in the erection of a retreat on the banks of the Thames. After marriage, C., discovering that 208. per week was a somewhat insufficient income for an elegant gentleman and an elegant gentleman's wife, was induced to add thereto by the writing of comedies, some of which were remarkably successful. In 1711, he became one of the patentees in the management of Drury Lane, and remained in connection with that theatre till 1739; when, on being appointed poet-laureate, he sold his interest in the business. He was, however, sometimes tempted back to the stage by an offer of 50 guineas a night. During his life, C. wrote and adapted many plays. As an author, however, he is best known by his Apology, published in two volumes. He died suddenly on the 12th December 1757.

CI'BOL. See ONION.

CIBRA'RIO, LUIGI, an Italian historian and politician, was born at Turin, 23d February 1802. He studied at the university of that city, where he took his degree in 1824, as Doctor of Laws. Devoted to historical investigations, he secured a reputation in this important department, at a very early period. In 1825 appeared his Notizie sulla Suria dei Principi di Savoia; in 1826, his Notizie di Paolo Simone de Belli; and in

an office which he still holds. In 1857, he was appointed president of the Telegraphic Congress of Turin. In 1860, C. again made his appearance as an author, in his Operette Varie (Torino), and his Jacopo Valperga di Masino, Cancelliere di Savoya He is also about to commence a new work, entitled Servi della gleba.

CICA'DA, a genus of insects of the order Hemiptera, sub-order Homoptera, remarkable for the sounds which they emit, the loudness of which is very extraordinary, when considered with reference to the size of the creatures producing them. The largest European species are only about an inch long. The elytræ, or wing-covers, of the cicade are almost always transparent and veined. They dwell on shrubs and trees, of which they suck the juices. The male insects alone possess the organs of sound perfectly developed. These are in noway connected with the mouth or throat, but may be described as a musical apparatus on the under side of the abdomen. This apparatus is very complicated, consisting of a set of membranes and fibres connected with powerful muscles. The sound can be produced even after the insect has been long dead, by pulling the fibres, and letting them escape. Cicadas are most common in tropical and warm temperate regions. A remarkable species, the C. septemdecim, appears in the middle U. States at intervals of 17 years, and is known as the 17-year locust. Its larva is said to subsist upon the juices of the roots of fruit trees and to be sometimes injurious to them, Its first recorded appearance was in Maryland in 1749. The sounds produced by some of the South American species, which are much larger than the European, are loud enough to be heard at the distance of a mile, and have been likened to the sound of a razor-grinder at work. The Greek name of the C. is tettix, often erroneously translated

Cicada.

CICATRISATION-CICERO.

grasshopper. These insects have indeed no resemblance to grasshoppers, and no power of leaping. C. is the Latin name. The modern Italian is cicale, the French cigale. Byron speaks of the 'shrill cicalas.' CICATRISATION (Lat. cicatrix, a scar), the process of healing or skinning over of an ulcer or broken surface in the skin or in a mucous membrane, by which a fibrous material, of a dense resisting character, is substituted for the lost texture. The new tissue, in such a case, is called the cicatrix, and usually resembles, to a considerable extent, the structure which it replaces; it is, however, less elastic, and from its shrinking in volume, sometimes produces an appearance of puckering. The glands and other special structures of the original tissue are wanting in the cicatrix, which, however, performs perfectly well, in most instances, the office of protection to the parts below the surface. See INFLAMMATION and ULCERATION.

CICELY (Myrrhis), a genus of umbelliferous plants, nearly allied to Chervil, of which one species, SWEET C. (M. odorata), is common in the central and southern parts of Europe, and in similar climates in Asia, but in Britain is so generally found near human habitations, that it appears probably to have been introduced. It is sometimes called Sweet Chervil, and in Scotland Myrrh. It is a branching perennial, two feet high or upwards, with large triply pinnate leaves and pinnatifid leaflets, somewhat downy beneath; the fruit remarkable for its large size, and, as well as the whole plant, powerfully fragrant, the smell resembling that of anise. The seeds, roots, and young leaves are used in Germany and other countries in soups, etc. The S. C. of the U. States is the Osmorrhiza longistylis and

O. brevistylis.

CI'CER. See CHICK PEA.

and to the entire satisfaction of those whom he governed. Some years after his return, he laid the Sicilians under still greater obligations by his suc cessful prosecution of their prætor, Verres, against whom he prepared no less than six orations, although the first had the effect of disheartening the accused so effectually, that he voluntarily retired into exile. Passing, at short intervals, through the offices of ædile (69 B. c.) and prætor (66 B. C.), he was at length elected, by an overwhelming majority, to the consulship. His tenure of office was rendered memorable by the conspiracy of Catiline, which he frustrated with admirable skill and promptitude. See CATILINE. The highest praises were showered upon C.; he was hailed by Cato and Catulus as the Father of his Country;' and public thanksgivings in his name were voted to the gods. But his popu larity did not last long after the expiry of his consulship. His enemies charged him with a public without a formal trial, and he found it necessary crime, in having put the conspiring nobles to death to leave Rome, and went to reside in Thessalonica (58 B. C.). A formal edict of banishment was pronounced against him, but he was recalled from exile in about 16 months, and on his return to Rome was received with great enthusiasm. His recovered dignity, however, soon excited the envy of the honourable party in the senate, with whom he had desired to make common cause; while Pompey and whose enmity he had most to dread, courted his Cæsar, the greatest pov ers in the state, and from alliance and co-operation. Thus, while preserving an appearance of independence, he was betrayed into many actions which he could not but regard as ignominious, and which, by increasing the power of the triumvirs, led indirectly to the ruin of the republic. A remarkable exception to this servile conduct is to be found in his assisting Milo when suing for CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS, the greatest orator the consulship, and defending him, against the wish of Rome, and one of the most illustrious of her of Pompey, and in spite of the hostile feeling of the statesmen and men of letters, was born at Arpinum, populace, after he had slain Clodius in an accidental on the 3d of January, in the year 106 B. C. He rencounter. During this period, he composed his belonged to an ancient family, of the equestrian works, De Oratore, De Republica, and De Legibus. order, and possessed of considerable influence in After a year's admirable administration of the prohis native district. His father, himself a man of vince of Cilicia (51-50 B. C.), he returned to Italy culture, and desirous that his son should acquire on the eve of the civil war. With the convictions an eminent position in the state, removed him at which he avowed, there was but one course which an early age to Rome, where, under the direction it would have been honourable for him to pursueof the orator Crassus, he was instructed in the to enlist himself, at all hazards, on the side of language and literature of Greece, and in all the Pompey and the republic. But instead of this he other branches of a polite education. In his six- hesitated, balanced the claims of duty and of teenth year he assumed the manly gown, and was interest, blamed Pompey for his want of preparaintroduced to the public life of a Roman citizen. tion, and criticised the plan of his campaign. At He now acquired a knowledge of law, and under-length he joined the army of the senate, but, after went a complete course of discipline in oratory. At the battle of Pharsalia, abruptly quitted his friends, the same time, he studied philosophy under three and resolved to throw himself upon the generosity successive preceptors, of the Epicurean, Academic, of the conqueror. After nine months' miserable and Stoic schools, and neglected no mental exercise, suspense at Brundusium, he was kindly received by however arduous, which might conduce to his future | Cæsar, whom he followed to Rome. During the eminence; being thus early of the opinion which years which ensued, he remained in comparative he afterwards maintained in his treatise De Oratore, retirement, composing his principal works in philthat an orator should possess almost universal know- osophy and rhetoric, including those entitled Orator, ledge. With the exception of a brief campaign Hortensius, De Finibus, Tusculana Disputationes, under Sulla, in the Social War, he passed his time De Natura Deorum, De Senectute, De Amicitia, and in these preliminary studies until his 26th year, De Officiis. On the death of Cæsar, he was disposed when he began to plead in public. In one of his to unite his interests with those of Brutus and the arliest causes, he distinguished himself by defend- other conspirators, but was restrained by dictates ing the rights of Roscius, a private citizen, against of prudence. In the commotions which followed, one of the favourites of Sulla, who was then dictator. he espoused the cause of Octavianus, and gave utterSoon after, for the benefit of his health, and in order ance to his celebrated philippics against Antony. to his improvement in elocution, he travelled to the These orations were the occasion of his death. chief seats of learning in Greece and Asia; and, When Octavianus and Lepidus joined with Antony on his return, was regarded as second to no orator in a triumvirate, C. was among the proscribed; and at the Roman bar. Having been elected quæstor his life was relentlessly sought. The soldiers of (76 B. C.), he was appointed by lot to a government Antony overtook him while his attendants were in Sicily, a post which he filled with great ability, bearing him, now old, and in an infirm state of

CICERONE-CID CAMPEADOR.