TURKEY.

coast at Sinai. Besides the Euphrates (q. v.), Tigris 000; Circassians, 595,000; Koords, 16,000; Gipsies, (q. v.), and Orontes (q. v.), the only important rivers 214,000, and Jews, 70,000,-a total of 18,482,000; of Turkey in Asia are the Kizil-Ermak, which rises in Asia, Turks, 10,700,000; Armenians, 2,000,000; on the borders of Cilicia, and after a devious course Druses, 1,000,000; Greeks, 1,000,000; Arabs, 900,across the peninsula, falls into the Black Sea, near 000; Circassians, 413,000; Moors, 75,000; Tartars, Samsoun; the Meander and Sarahat, which flow to 85,000; Jews, 80,000; Koords, 20,000, and Syrians, the Egean; and the Sakaria, which empties itself 30,000,-a total of 16,463,000; and in Africa, Arabs, into the Euxine. On the whole, Turkey in Asia is 5,050,000:-forming a grand total of 39,995,000. ill-supplied with water; and though the mountain The Greeks and Armenians are traders; the Turkoslopes afford abundance of excellent pasture, the mans and Koords are herdsmen and nomads; the plains, and many of the valleys, especially those of Sclaves, Roumans, and Albanians are the chief agrithe Euphrates, Tigris, and Jordan, are reduced by culturists in Europe, and the Osmanlis, Armenians, the parching droughts of summer to the condition Syrians, and Druses in Asia. Of the whole populaof sandy deserts. In ancient times, these now desert tion, about 24,000,000 are Mohammedans, and districts were preserved in a state of fertility by 15,000,000 Greek and Armenian Christians. artificial irrigation; but during the six centuries of almost constant war which convulsed this once fair region, the canals were neglected, and have, ever since the rise of the Osmanli power, remained in an unserviceable condition. Nevertheless, the fertile portions produce abundance of wheat, barley, rice, maize, tobacco, hemp, flax, and cotton; the cedar, cypress, and evergreen oak flourish on the mountain slopes; the sycamore and mulberry on the lower hills; and the olive, fig, citron, orange, pomegranate, and vine on the low lands. The mineral products are iron, copper, lead, alum, silver. rock-salt, coal (in Syria), and limestone. The fauna includes the lion (east of the Euphrates), the hyena, lynx, panther, leopard, buffalo, wild boar, wild ass, bear, wolf, jackal, jerboa, and many others; and the camel and dromedary increase the ordinary list of domestic animals.

Industry, Manufactures, and Trade.-Notwithstanding the primitive state of agriculture in T., the extreme fertility of the soil, which returns from 25 to 100 fold, makes ample amends for this defect, and supplies materials for the comparatively unimportant manufactures and industries of the country. The products are wax, raisins, dried figs, olive oil, silks, red cloth, dressed goat-skins, excellent morocco, saddlery, swords of superior quality, shawls, carpets, dye-stuffs, embroidery, essential oils, attar of roses, plum-brandy, &c. The commerce of T. is extensive and important, and under the influence of judicious regulations, is rapidly increasing; recent detailed statistics are not obtainable, but the average export to Europe for the years 1866-1868 is estimated at £10,000,000, and the import average for the same period at £18,000,000. The exports are the surplus of the above-mentioned natural and manufactured products of the country, also wool, goat's hair, meerschaum clay, honey, sponges, drugs, madder, gallnuts, various gums and resins, and excellent wines; the imports are manufactured goods of all kinds, glass, pottery, arms, paper, cutlery, steel, amber, &c. The countries which trade with T. are, in order of importance, Persia, Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Egypt, &c.; and the principal commercial ports of the country are Constantinople, Trebizond, and Smyrna. The trade of T. is, however, greatly impeded by the difficulty of land-transit; though it is satisfactory to find that the government has at last bestirred itself, by the forming of new roads and the laying down of railways, to remove this obstacle to the development of the prosperity of the country.

Population.-A more heterogeneous aggregation of races than that which constitutes the population of the Turkish Empire can hardly be conceived. Of Turks, there are the Osmanlis, the ruling race, and the Turkomans; of Sclaves, the various peoples of Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro, and numerous other races. According to estimates, in 1867 there were-in Europe 4,492,000 Turks; Selavonians, 6,200,000; Roumanians, 4,000,000; Greeks, 1,000,000; Albanians, 1,500,000; Armenians, 400,

Administration, Religion, Education.-The govern ment of T. is a pure despotism, the sovereign, who is commonly styled Sultan, having also the titles Padishah, Grand Seignior, Khan, and Hunkiar; but though nominally absolute, his power is much limited by the sheikh-ul-islam, the chief of the Ulemas (q. v.), who has the power of objecting to any of the sultan's decrees, and frequently possesses more authority over the people than his sovereign. The supreme head of the administration, and the next in rank to the sultan, is the grand vizier (sadri-azam), under whom are the members of the cabinet or divan (menasybi-divaniié), namely, the presidents of the supreme council of state (alkiami-adlié) and of the Tanzimat (q. v.), the Seraskier (q. v.), the capuulan pasha, or high-admiral, and the other heads of departments of the administration. The governors of the eyalets, or provinces, are styled walis; each eyalet is divided into sanjaks, or livus, ruled by kaimakams; each liva containing a number of cazas, or districts; and each caza a number of nahiyehs, composed of villages and hamlets. The provincial governors have no longer the power of life and death; and the introduction of the system of taxcollection in practice in Western Europe, has greatly diminished their power of practising extortion on those under their rule. The variable imposts are, however, farmed, but considerable restrictions are imposed on the farmers to prevent oppression. The established religion is Mohainmedanism, but all other sects are recognised and tolerated; and since 1856, a Mussulman has been free to change his religion at pleasure, without becoming liable to capital punishment, as was formerly the case. Education was long neglected, but in 1847 a new system was introduced; and since then, schools for elementary instruction have been established throughout T.; and middle schools for higher education, and colleges for the teaching of medicine, agriculture, naval and mili tary science, &c. Many wealthy Turks, however, send their sons to France or Britain to be educated. The newspapers published in T. are about 20 in number; and are printed in various languages, four being in Turkish, two in Greek, and two in French.

Revenue, Army and Navy.-The estimated revenue and expenditure for the year 1869-1870 were respectively £15,126,000 and £15,583,000; the chief items being:

TURKEY TURKEY BUZZARD.

921,50)

828,000

966,000

44,500

a

the wings even of the wild bird are short, scarcely extending beyond the base of the tail. The darkest£2,616,000 coloured of domesticated turkeys most nearly 1,629,000 resemble the wild T. in plumage. In its native woods, it seems to attain even a larger size than in 3,609,000 the poultry-yard. Turkeys were once plentiful in the 138.500 forests of the Atlantic states of North America, and 2,662.500 as far north as Lower Canada, but have disappeared 727,000 as cultivation has advanced, and have become rare 71,500 even in the eastern parts of the Valley of the 172.500 Mississippi, where their numbers were once very The T. is found as far south as the Isthmus 72,000 great. 50,500 of Darien, but does not occur to the west of the 176,000 Rocky Mountains. It inhabits the woods of the larger islands of the West Indies. In warm climates, it is said to produce two or three broods year; but in colder countries it produces only one. The males associate in flocks of from ten to one hundred, and seek their food during great part of the year apart from the females, which go about singly with their young, or associate in flocks, avoiding the old males, which are apt to attack and destroy the young. At the pairing-time, desperate combats take place among the males. Wild turkeys roost on trees. They feed on all kinds of grain, seeds, fruits, grass, insects, and even on young frogs and lizards. They make their nests on the ground, merely gathering together a few dry leaves, and often in a thicket. The eggs are usually from nine to fifteen in number, someover the higher grounds; but in winter, congregate They spread themselves in summer in the rich low valleys. The sexes mingle in winter, and form larger flocks than in summer.

The Osmanlis are exempted from the capitation tax. The public debt, at the end of 1870, amounted to £110,155,583, on which there is an annual charge of £7,678,735; the interior debt, at the commencement of 1867, amounted to £34,545,450, and the floating debt, at the end of 1869, to £7,700,000.

On account of its size, and the excellence of its flesh and eggs, the T. is one of the most valued kinds of poultry. The management of it differs little from that of the common fowl. The young are tender for the first few weeks, and require care, particularly to keep them from getting wet by running among wet grass, or the like; but afterwards they are sufficiently hardy. Nettles are excellent food for turkeys, and are often chopped up for them, to be given in addition to grain, bran, boiled potatoes, and other such food.

The only other known species of T. is Meleagris ocellata, a native of the warmest parts of North

The regular army (nizam) was formerly divided into six army corps, and numbered, in all, 110,496 men; with detached divisions, garrisons, &c., of 30,000, 21,200 of whom were effective. In June, 1869, a decree was promulgated for the organization of a permanent army, of which the active part comprised 150,000, with a reserve of 60,000 men, a second reserve of 192,000, and garrison troops numbering 30,000; a total of 702, 000 men. The term of service was made 4 years, instead of 5, as formerly. The fleet in 1870 consisted of 13 iron-times twenty. clads, and 216 guns; 27 screw steamers, of 645 guns; 9 corvettes; 13 advice-boats, of 820 guns; 12 gunboats, of 28 guns, and 35 transports, of 52 guns; total of 109 steamers, of 1761 guns, and 53 sailing vessels. The vessels that entered the port of Constantinople in 1868 numbered 22,141, of 5,037,448 tons, and the clearances were 22,542, of 5,064,571 tons. The only line of railroad extends about 185 miles, from Varna to Roustchouk, and from Kustendje to Tchernavida; 1250 miles are conceded, and 145 miles were in course of construction in 1867 from Smyrna to points in its vicinity. The length of the telegraph lines in 1866 was 8541 miles. The history of T. is given under OTTOMAN EMPIRE. TURKEY (Meleagris), a genus of gallinaceous birds of the family Pavonida, or, according to some ornithologists, of a distinct family, Meleagride, both, however, being included by others in Phasianida. The head is bare, the neck wattled, and the bill of the male surmounted with a conical fleshy caruncle, sometimes erected, sometimes elongated and pendulous. A curious tuft of long hair springs from the base of the neck of the male, and hangs down on the breast. The bill is rather short, strong, and curved; the tail is broad and rounded, capable of being erected and spread out, as the male delights to do when he struts about in pride, with wings rubbing on the ground, uttering his loud peculiar gobble. The COMMON T. (M. gallo-pavo), the largest of gallinaceous birds, well known as an inmate of our poultry-yards, is a native of North America. appears to have been introduced into Europe in the beginning of the 16th c.. and is naturalised in some places; as it may be said to have been in the royal park of Richmond, near London, in the first half of the 18th c., when that park contained about two thousand turkeys; but in consequence of the frequent fights between poachers and keepers, it was thought proper to destroy them. Fewer attempts have been made than might have been expected to introduce the T. in parks and woods in Britain, where it might probably be expected to succeed as well as the pheasant. In a domesticated state, the T. varies much in plumage; in its wild state, this is not the case. The plumage of the wild T. is also richer, and its power of wing greater; but

It

America. It is not quite so large as the Common T., and has a smaller tail. The neck is less wattled, but the head has a number of fleshy tubercles. The plumage is beautiful, rivalling that of the peacock in metallic brilliancy: blue, green, bronze, red, and golden hues being intimately and finely mingled, and forming eyes on the tail; whence the specific name.

TURKEY BUZZARD. See VULTURE.

TURKEY-RED-TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

TURKEY-RED. This celebrated colour-the omissions. This is the least understood part of the

most durable, and perhaps one of the most beautiful which has yet been produced on cotton-is dyed by a process supposed to have been practised in India from immemorial time. It passed from thence through other parts of Asia to the countries of the Levant, and was introduced into France about the middle of last century. The first successful attempt to introduce it into Great Britain was made in Glasgow in 1783, by a Rouen dyer named Papillon, in conjunction with Mr George Macintosh, the father of the inventor of waterproof cloth. They established the celebrated Turkey-red business now carried on by Messrs Henry Monteith & Co. By an agreement with the Trustees for Manufactures in Scotland, Papillon allowed them to make his process public in 1803; and since then, Turkey-red dyeing has been extensively carried on in Glasgow and its neighbourhood, and also in Lancashire.

process, and is no doubt the cause of the rich appearance of the dye, which approaches some of the fine reds produced on wool.

Besides being largely used in its plain state, Turkey-red cloth is extensively employed for handkerchiefs with white patterns produced upon them by discharging the colour (see BANDANA); and of late years, articles of various kinds, with patterns in several colours, have been produced by ordinary calico-printing machines, where, by proper arrangements, the different colours are obtained on parts where the red colour is discharged by chloride of lime.

TURKEY-STONE. See HONES.

TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The Turkish is one of the Turanian (q. v.) idioms, and is chiefly divided into Eastern and Western Turkish. The former is mainly represented by the Uigur (Jagatai), an idiom but recently recog nised not only to belong to the Turkic stock, but to be its most ancient representative. Its forms are fuller and more pure, albeit, to a certain extent, harder and rougher. Its alphabet is formed from the Zabian, out of which have sprung also the Mongol and Mantshu. Besides this, the Kiptchak, spoken in Kasan and Astrakhan, forms a principal branch of the Eastern Turkish, for which, however, but little has hitherto been done from a philological point of view.

There is a mode of dyeing cotton red with madder practised by calico-printers the cloth being previously bleached with chloride of lime-where the whole process only occupies a day or two. But in the case of Turkey-red, which is also a madder-dye, the operations are long and tedious, and the bleach ing with chloride of lime especially objectionable. The following is an outline of the steps in the Turkey: red process, as usually conducted: 1. Unbleached calico is thoroughly washed at a dash-wheel or other washing-machine, and then boiled for some time in a solution of carbonate of soda. 2. The cloth is soaked in a bath containing a soapy emulsion of olive oil, Of infinitely higher importance, however, is the sheep's dung, carbonate of sodium and water; and Western Turkish, or language of the Osmanlis, allowed to remain for a week or more impregnated which, through the conquests of that race, has with the solution, after which it is aired in the field, spread far and wide over the whole of Western and dried in stoves. This operation is repeated at least Asia, the Levant, and parts of Europe. The three times. 3. The next stage, sometimes called Osman or Western Turkish (emphatically Turkish) 'liquoring,' consists in passing the cloth through an is more melodious and soft than the former, and emulsion of olive oil and carbonate of sodium, but with- so much mixed with foreign elements, chiefly out sheep's dung; after which it is aired in the field, Arabic and Persian, that, were it not for its and dried in stoves, as in the last operation. The grammar, which is purely Tatarian, it could hardly 'liquoring' is repeated at least four times. 4. The be called an original language, but rather a concloth now requires to be soaked in a weak alkaline glomeration of the three respective idioms. Belye of pearl-ash and soda, in order to remove any sides, it has also received a large increase of words excess of oil. 5. The cloth is warmed in a bath con- from other Asiatic and European languages, e. g., taining a mixture of powdered oak-galls and sumach, the Chinese, Greek, and Italian. It is one of the or either of these substances alone, the operation most widely spoken idioms; not only Western Asia, being sometimes called 'galling,' and sometimes su- but even the east of Europe, use this tongue to a maching.' 6. The cloth is next steeped for twelve hours great extent for commercial and political transacin a solution of alum, partially neutralised by car- tions. The characters in which it is now written bonate of sodium, but sometimes acetate of aluminium are no longer the original Uigur letters, but the is used instead of alum. Without this treatment, Arabic, the 28 characters of which have been the dye could not be fixed upon the cotton. See increased by the four additional Persian characters DYEING. 7. When thoroughly washed, the cloth-produced by further diacritical points, and a new is ready to receive the red dye, which is produced by immersing it in a decoction of madder, to which some chalk and bullock's blood are sometimes added. It is put into the dye-beck when cold, and kept in it for two hours after it has been raised to the boiling-point. 8. It is next boiled in a weak solution of soap and soda, which removes a brown colouring matter present in the madder-dye, but more fugitive than the red portion. 9. Finally, the dyed cloth is cleared or brightened by boiling it in a solution of chloride of tin, and then washing and drying it. A more recent plan is to employ chloride of lime for the clearing.

The theory of Turkey-red dyeing is not well understood, which so far accounts for the fact, that it has been found impossible materially to shorten the process. The three most essential operations are the oiling, or rather the impregnation with an oleaginous soap, the mordanting with alumina, and the dyeing with madder; but it is found, that if any of the numerous dippings in the oily emulsions are left out, the colour is inferior in proportion to the number of

one of their own, amounting in all to 33, which are written from right to left, as is the case in all (save one) Semitic languages. But this alphabet is not well suited to a language composed, like this, of elements belonging to the three great families of speech, viz., Semitic, Indo-European, and Turanic. Neither the vowels nor the consonants are adequately represented in all cases. Occasionally, however, it is also written in Armenian characters, which renders its sounds much more faithfully. There is no definite article or gender. The plural is indicated by a final lar or ler, and the cases are formed by the addition of ung, eh, i, den, and le for gen., dat., accus., abl., and instrumental respectively, which are, in plural, affixed to the ler or lar. The adjective has no flexion, but is placed unchanged after the noun. Diminutives are formed, somewhat Eke in Italian, by suffixes. The comparative and superlative are formed by circumlocution. The personal pronouns are without gender, and their declension is like that of the nouns. The possessive pronouns are made by suffixes. The Turkish verb is of a very

complex nature.

TURKMANSHAI-TURKS.

There are seven genera (Active, Passive, Negative, Impossible, Causal, Reciprocal, Reflexive), all of which are formed by certain monosyllables affixed or prefixed. The root of the verb is the second person singular imperative, to which the infinitive affix mak or mek is joined. The moods and tenses are formed chiefly by the addition of the respective forms of the auxiliary verb olmak, to be. Apart from this, there are special particles to express the optative, conjunctive, &c. Conjunctions are either formed by gerundives or possessive forms, or they are borrowed from Persian and Arabic. Adverbs are formed by certain suffixes. The Turkish construction is most peculiar: the genitive always precedes the nominative, and the verb always stands at the end. All this gives the Turkish style a peculiarly artificial and inverted appearance, and often a sentence cannot be in the least comprehended until it is quite finished. Oriental flourishes, and allegorical figures of speech, with which Turkish is very lavish, do not tend to facilitate the study of the language.

TURKS, the name of a numerous, important, and widely-spread family of the human race, members of which are to be found as well on the banks of the Lena in Siberia, as on those of the Danube and the shores of the Adriatic in Europe. The T. belong to the second of Blumenbach's five great divisions of mankind-viz., Mongolians; and to the first, or Mongolidæ, in Dr Latham's three-fold classification. In this latter classification, the T. form a branch of the Turanian stock of Altaic Mongolidæ. Their geographical distribution, according to Dr Latham, is as follows: 1. As a continuous population. East and west; from the neighbourhood of the Lake Baikal, 110° E. long., to the eastern boundaries of the Greek and Slavonic countries of Europe, about 21° E. long. North and south; from the northern frontiers of Tibet and Persia, about 34 N. lat., to the country north of Tobolsk, about 59° N. lat. 2. As an isolated population. Along the lower course of the Lena, and the shores of the White Sea, chiefly within the Arctic Circle. 3. As portions of a mixed popula tion in China, Tibet, Mongolia, Persia, Armenia, the Caucasian countries, Syria, Egypt, Barbary, Greece, Albania, and the Slavonic portion of Turkey in Europe.' The names Tourkoi, Turkai, and Turca occur in some ancient authors as applied to a Scythian people dwelling in Asiatic Sarmatia, and it is very likely that the Scythians of antiquity were allied in blood with the numerous existing Turkish tribes, if not absolutely their ancestors. The original seat of the T. was probably upon the northern slopes of the Altai range, from which, while a portion emigrated into Independent Turkestan, others, going south-south-east, established themselves upon the confines of the Chinese Empire. MM. Abel-Rémusat, Klaproth, Ritter, and other high authorities, concur in tracing all the now existing Turkish tribes to the Hiong-nu, a powerful nation who, prior to the Christian era, threatened to overrun and subjugate China, and who then occupied the whole of the vast region now called Mongolia, from the north of China to Mount Altai. Dr Prichard coincides in this opinion. The Hiong-nu (or Vile Slaves, so called by the Chinese), indeed, for some time succeeded in establishing a kind of rule in China, and even intermarried with the imperial family; but about the commencement of the Christian era, their power in China began to wane, and before the end of the 2d c. they were driven back as far as Independent Turkestan. After the fall of the empire of Hiong-nu,' says Prichard, the T. ' are known in Chinese history by the name of Thu-k'iú, or Turks, and Whey-ou-eul, by Europeans written Huy-hurs, and more correctly, Uigours. The Uigours, or Eastern Turks, whose history has been elucidated by Abel-Rémusat, are the link of connection between these more remote nations and the Seljuki and Osmanli Turks, who are known to European historians.'

The original literature of Turkey is to be found in the scanty remains of the Uigur period. That remote eastern branch of the Turkish family had, after their emigration from their homes, south of the Lake Baikal, to the Tangnu Tagh, played a foremost part in the contests and migrations of Central Asia, until they disappeared in the Mongol Empire about 1200 A.D. They were acquainted with Chinese literature, and had adopted the Buddhist doctrines to a certain extent, and their scanty literary relics bear traces of these influences. When, however, the Turks, in the 11th c., began their conquest of the countries of Mohammedan Asia, they learned to appreciate the literature of Persia, then beginning to grow up in its full glory; and ever since, Turkish literature and Turkish language have retained a strong Persian impression. Two branches of Turkish literature are usually distinguished-first, the Eastern or Jagataian, which chiefly flourished between Timur's and Baber's time (1400-1530). Mir Ali Shir, the vizier of Sultan Hussein, is the most renowned post of this period. He also collected the most ancient Jagatai poems. Sultan Baber, also belonging to this epoch, wrote Memoirs of his life and time (translated into English), which are of considerable importance. The other or Turkish literature, principally so called, is exceed ingly rich, but hardly deserving the name of an original literature, it being, for the greatest part, a mere imitation of Persian and Arabic models. Of early writers, deserve special mention Sheikhi, a romantic poet and physician, and Soleyman Tchelebi. In the 16th c., the most flourishing period of Turkey, we find Meshihi, the poet; Kemal Pasha Zadeh, the historian and jurist. In history, we have, besides annalists like Saad-ed-Din, historians like Mohammed Effendi. Of the same epoch is Lamii, who excelled in many branches of literature, besides being an accomplished translator of Persian poets. Fasli (d. 1563) and Baki, the chief of Turkish poets (d. 1600), conclude this period, which is followed by another of great activity, but of inferior rank. It boasts of Nebi, the poet; Nefi, the satirist; but above all, Hadji Khalifah (q. v.), the eminent historian, geographer, and encyclopædist. Raghib Pasha stands out in the 18th c., together with Said Rufet Effendi, and a number of smaller writers. Little is to be told of the present stage of Turkish literature; but there is a great activity After the fall of the Hiong-nu empire in China, now visible in the province of educational works, the tribes who composed its strength separated, and the reproduction of ancient writings; a feature some maintaining themselves in their acquired which augurs well for the future. Redhouse's settlements, and even conquering portions of China; (Par. 1846) and Kasem-Beg's (Kasan, 1845; Ger. but by far the greater number spread westward by Zenker, 1847 are the best known English- over Western Mongolia, East and West Turkestan.