And, indeed, it is obvious that a boy who has been taught to exercise his reason will nowhere find that power more beneficial than in this branch. The absence, indeed, of habits of reflection and active mental operation is the obvious and direct cause of the striking deficiency which is very frequently met with in arithmetical instruction. That deficiency is exhibited, 1. In the pupil's acquirement of formal and mechanical rules, without reference to the rationale or principles; and 2dly, In his consequent inability to work questions, for the solution of which the rules acquired by him would suffice, if he knew how to apply them. When the question is stated precisely in the terms set down in the book, he can apply the particular rule readily enough, but is reduced to a state of helplessness if it is stated in such a manner that the applicability of the rule is not manifest in the terms of the question; if, in short, there is wanting to the calculation anything beyond mechanical dexterity."-Report, pp. 70, 71.

Dunn's "Principles of Teaching" is, in many respects, a useful compilation. We will endeavour to give some of its better parts yet more concisely than the compiler himself has done :

"Most persons," says Sir Walter Scott, "must have witnessed with delight the joyous burst which attends the dismissing of a village-school, on a fine summer evening. The buoyant spirit of childhood, repressed with so much difficulty during the tedious hours of discipline, may then be seen to explode, as it were, in shout, and song, and frolic, as the little urchins join in groups on their playground, and arrange their matches of sport for the evening. But there is one individual who partakes of the relief afforded by the moment of dismission, whose feelings are not so obvious to the eye of the spectator, or so apt to receive his sympathy. I mean the teacher himself, who, stunned with the hum, and suffocated with the closeness of his school-room, has spent the whole day (himself against a host,) in controlling petulance, exciting indifference to action, striving to enlighten stupidity, and labouring to soften obstinacy; and whose very powers of intellect have been confounded by hearing the same dull lesson repeated a hundred times by rote, and only varied by the various blunders of the reciters. If to these mental distresses are added a delicate frame of body, and a mind ambitious of some higher distinction than that of being the tyrant of childhood, the reader may have some slight conception of the relief which a solitary walk in the cool of a fine summer evening affords to the head which has ached, and the nerves which have been shattered, for so many hours, in plying the irksome task of public instruction."

And is this dismal state of things, this dulness and noise, this heat and suffocation,-this punishment and grief,-necessary? Not in the least. The school-room may be rendered a scene of enjoyment, even as is the play-ground; but only upon conditions. And what are these? The first is, ability to govern by moral means. If a teacher insist upon ruling simply by the exercise of blind and brute force, he must expect to reap the reward of his folly in the uneasiness, vexation, and perplexity, which such a course will inevitably bring upon him. A second condition is, a love of chil

dren. A third condition is, unflinching faith in the efficacy of early instruction as a means of moral renovation. "Regeneration" is the word used by Mr. Dunn but of course we do not look for theological soundness or accuracy in a book connected with the British and Foreign School Society, and published by the Sunday School Union.* To proceed :

"Subordinate to these essential elements of happiness, are two other qualifications which may just be hinted at. The first is, the ability to interest children; a capability which mainly depends on the attention paid by the teacher to 'didaktik,' or the art of communicating instruction. The second is, competent information; by which I mean not merely the possession of just sufficient knowledge to conduct the school, but such a complete and accurate acquaintance, on the part of the teacher, with the elements of what he has to teach, as shall give him the mastery of all its parts, and confidence in the correctness of his own instructions. Any branch of science which is not thus known, is not our own in any true sense. No man can clearly and simply explain to a child anything with which he is not himself well acquainted. To illustrate successfully, much more is necessary; a considerable share of information on many subjects is necessary to success in this department."-Principles of Teaching, p. 15.

We pass on to the fifth letter, the subject of which is "Didaktik,” or the art of communicating.

"By this word didaktik, which the Germans have adopted from the Greek, I wish you to understand, the art of teaching; as distinguished, on the one hand, from their methodik, or science of methods; and on the other, from their pädagogik, or science of education, which includes the other two. . . It is the art of so communicating knowledge, that the pupil shall, as far as possible, comprehend, in all its relations, the truth sought to be imparted; and that, associating what is thus received with other and previous acquisitions, he may be led at one and the same time, to cultivate his original faculties, and to store his mind richly and permanently with valuable facts." -Principles of Teaching, p. 61.

We agree with this writer in considering it to be a great mistake to suppose, as many do, that, in order to make learning pleasant to the young, difficulties must be removed as much as possible out of the way. Children delight as much in exercising their minds as their limbs; provided only that which is presented to them be suited to their capacities and adapted to their strength. It is by teaching them to overcome difficulties, and not by teaching them to evade them, that we shall be most likely to create the interest we desire to call forth. As a general rule, it should be the care of a teacher to supply his pupils from day to day with a succession of topics, somewhat beyond their knowledge, without being above their comprehension.

We leave this work by making one additional short extract, which is given in it from Gallaudet: "They who would teach children well, must first learn a great deal from them."

"Grant that we, being regenerate, and made Thy children by adoption and grace, may daily be renewed by Thy Holy Spirit."-Collect for Christmas-Day.

Mrs. Tuckfield's "Letters to a Clergyman" are distinguished by the same practical good sense with regard to the details of villageschool instruction, which marks her "Education for the People." The principle which she chiefly insists on in these "Letters," is, that we ought to intrust not only the entire education of females to females, but also that boys and girls, till they are ten years old, may with advantage be educated together by females.

"The great principle I wish to establish, is the importance of calling forth a far greater degree of female agency than we now employ in education; both with a view to improving the religious and moral education of the lower orders, and also of lessening the actual expenditure of educational funds. It is my firm opinion, not only that the care of infants of both sexes, and of girls of all ages, ought to be committed to women, but that boys under ten years of age may with advantage be educated by women. Boys may acquire in these preparatory schools, if well conducted, good reading and writing, and some knowledge of arithmetic, geography, and natural history. They may be exercised in the acquisition of a pretty copious classified vocabulary, accustomed to define words, and to express simple ideas accurately in writing; they may also have learned linear drawing, and singing from notation, and may be ready to pass into self instructing classes in the regular boys' school. The amount, however, of intellectual instruction is not the point I have chiefly in view: women are certainly fully competent to learn and to teach all that is requisite for boys of ten years old to know: but it is in laying the foundation of future principles, exciting the first religious emotions, gently curbing the rebellious will, winning the heart, and obtaining an unlimited sway over the whole character by mildness and affection,-it is in all these respects, that women will be found far more powerful and efficient agents than men..... Besides this, there is one species of instruction particularly useful in the case of poor little boys under ten years of age, which women only can give; I mean knitting, netting, straw-plaiting, and coarse needle-work. This will be found useful, as a means of early instilling the principle that manual labour is honourable; and that children come to school, not only to learn to read and cipher, but to learn to get their living, in that state of life into which it has pleased God to call them.-But the advantage I have principally in view, is a constant alternation of manual and intellectual labour; a point which, I think, by no means meets the attention it deserves. It should never be lost sight of in any stage of education. But especially before a child has reached its tenth year, all excitement of the brain should be avoided; and yet, from five to ten, it is peculiarly necessary to subdue the will and tranquillise the passions, by introducing habits of fixed occupation. Linear drawing and good writing may both be considered as manual labour, and are particularly fit occupations for young children. . . . Much good is done to the character by exacting some manual labour which requires accuracy, patience, and attention. . . . Let the children feel, that from the moment they enter the school, a pains-taking habit of mind is required, and that however little is done, it must be well done. The moral effect of such lessons is great, and will influence the character through life. . . . It is astonishing how much time is lost, how much harm is done in schools, by allowing, day after day, bad reading and bad writing. I have the greatest horror of bad reading, and a great desire to introduce generally distinct articulation and good reading over the kingdom. Poor children never open their mouths, never articulate distinctly, and never dwell on their words; and a most slovenly utterance is acquired, which it is very difficult afterwards to cure."-Letters to a Clergyman.

"

We heartily agree with Mrs. Tuckfield in recommending silent, individual, and self-instructing occupations. The only "systems" or "methods" of school organization at present generally known and adopted in this country, are the Monitorial, the Simultaneous, and the Mixed.* It does not come within the scope of our present purpose to describe these three systems, or to discuss their respective merits but we are disposed to think that what may be called the Successive Method, will be found to be peculiarly adapted to schools of moderate size, that is, containing not more than from seventy to one hundred children. By the Successive Method, we mean a plan of school organization which will enable the master to instruct all the boys himself; grouping them into classes, and taking each class in succession. But a much more detailed description than we are prepared to give, until we have seen the results of some interesting experiments which we are now superintending, would be necessary to show how very different this method or system is from the three now chiefly in use, and still more necessary to display its peculiar advantages.

Writing-out will be one of the principal exercises, and instruction in language one of the principal objects aimed at. With regard to writing-out, we find the following recommendation in the just-published Report of the Archidiaconal Board of Education in the county of Buckingham, for 1841-2:-" It relieves the master, and gives him an opportunity of bestowing personal attention upon the lower classes. It teaches the children punctuation as well as spelling. It practises them in writing. It makes them acquainted, as regards spelling, with all kinds of words, especially those in common use, as plurals, auxiliaries, &c. which are omitted in the usual spelling-books. And it may perhaps instruct them, indirectly, in the composition of sentences. The subject-matter, moreover, is fixed by this method on the memories of the children. And the school is more quiet than when viva voce spelling is proceeding." With regard to instruction in language, Mrs. Tuckfield says:

....

"If once you succeed in giving children some pretty good knowledge of the meaning of words, it is astonishing how much miscellaneous information they will acquire by themselves. The very limited vocabulary of the children of the poor, and of the middle classes, and their vague ideas of the very words they know and use, are the greatest impediments to improvement. . . . It is certainly of the first importance to give the habit of never using a word without being able to attach a precise meaning to it. The importance of such a habit to intellectual progress is evident; but perhaps its tendency, in a moral point of view, has not been sufficiently observed upon. . . . . It seems to me that there are numberless ill effects on the human character, arising from the use of vague, undefined terms: that it engenders self-deception and presumption; that it undermines an early love of, and all aptitude for accurate research. On the other hand, the habit of attaching clear ideas to every expression, seems to me to engender a taste for truth, a taste for research, and an experimental convic

* See Minutes of Committee of Council on Education, 1839-40.

tion that nothing is satisfactory and delightful but what we can apprehend clearly ourselves, and communicate distinctly to others."-Letters to a Clergyman, pp. 46–48.

The opinions expressed in the concluding sentence require to be guarded; and we shall return to this part of the subject before we conclude.

Miss Taylor's" Help to the Schoolmistress, for Village Teaching," is a pleasing book. Less original in thought, less animated in expression, than Mrs. Tuckfield, Miss Taylor writes with greater steadiness, and has produced a more suitable book for the villageschool teacher. If this book were enriched by the insertion of a few very practical and tolerably minute directions for the internal conduct of a village-school, with a moderate supply of model lessons, and references to further sources of information, sound, cheap, and accessible, it would go far towards supplying a confessed want in country parishes.

The "Hints for School-Keeping," by the Bishop of Sodor and Man, give much more useful information than the size of the tiny volume which contains them would lead the reader to expect. This book would furnish some desirable hints for insertion in the Manual we have just spoken of. The more instructive chapters are those on "Rules for School-Keeping;" "Signs of an Ill-Governed School;" and "Secondary Punishments."

The "Educational Magazine," which stands at the head of our present article, having ceased to issue as a periodical work, may fairly be considered to come within the jurisdiction of a publication like our own. We shall pursue the same course with this as with the other books under review. We shall notice that only which is useful and good; passing over in silence, or only incidentally glancing at whatever we may feel ourselves bound to dissent from; omitting also those passages-as for example, the controversial ones -which have lost their interest; that interest being temporary and accidental.

The frontispiece of this magazine,-an engraving of Westminster Abbey, is symbolical of its meaning and design. The editor has expounded his symbol, and urged the great truth of which it is the outward and visible sign, in a manner well calculated to arrest attention and to impress conviction.

"The affections, the imagination, the understanding of a man, seem wasted and meant for nothing, till he finds that he is a CITIZEN; what it is to be a citizen he knows not till he finds that he is a WORSHIPPER. To fit a man for being a citizen, to make him understand the meaning of submission to law and loyalty to a person, and so to prepare him for using those particular powers which he can only exercise freely and happily when these moral habits have been cultivated within him; and to fit him for being a worshipper, to make him understand the meaning of reverence to an