REPULSION-REPUTED OWNERSHIP.

thrown a certain degree of odium upon its supporters, the Republicans were stigmatised by their opponents as Democrats. The name, given as a reproach, was soon adopted; and the party of Jefferson and Jackson called itself Democratic Republican, and its members were usually called Democrats; while the name of Federalist having become unpopular by the opposition of the party to the war with England, it adopted the designation of National Republicans, and some years later, of Whigs, which was the name taken by the 'disloyal' party in the War of Independence, the 'loyal' party being called Tories. The Whigs of 1840 repudiated alike the principles and name of the Federalists; they professed to be followers of Jefferson, and called themselves Democratic Whigs.

In the effort to elect Mr Fremont in 1856, and in the election of Mr Lincoln in 1860, the Whig party, deserted by many of its more conservative members, known as Old Whigs, but reinforced by a larger number of Free-soil Democrats and Abolitionists, adopted the name of Republicans, and were called by their opponents Black Republicans, from their anti-slavery tendencies. In the presidential contest of 1864, the Republicans, hoping to secure the support of the War or Union Democrats, adopted the name of the Union Party,' while they went further than the ancient Federalists in support of a strong centralised government. The Federalist, National Republican, Whig, and Republican party has been essentially the same, and for the most part a New England or Northern party-its principal leaders having been John Adams, Josiah Quincy, Alexander Hamilton, Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, Wm. H. Seward, and Abraham Lincoln. The Democratic party had its centres in Virginia and New York, and was the party of Jefferson, Madison, Jackson, Calhoun, Van Buren, Polk, Pierce, Buchanan. The former party advocated a construction of the Constitution favourable to the powers of the Federal government, a national bank, and a high protective tariff; the Democratic party, on the other hand, held to a strict construction of the Constitution, a careful limitation of the powers of the central government, an independent treasury, a specie currency, and free-trade, or a tariff for revenue only. There was, 25 years ago, a respectable Whig minority in most of the Southern States, and in two or three, Whig majorities; but when the Whig party adopted abolition, and took the name Republican, every southern state voted with the Democratic party. Other party names met with in American political writings are of a local, factional, or temporary character. Blue-light Federalist' was a name given to those who were believed to have made friendly signals to British ships in the war of 1812. Clintonians' and 'Bucktails' were old factions of the Democratic party in New York. 'Barnburner' was applied as a term of reproach to a section of the democracy supposed to be in sympathy with the Anti-renters.' The Soft Shells' were 'Free-soil' Democrats, in favour of excluding slavery from the territories and future states of the Union; while the Hard Shells' were in favour of what they held to be the rights of the South. The more widely known name of 'Locofoco,' applied to, and good-naturedly accepted by the Democratic party, arose from the fact, that a meeting of a section of the party in Tammany Hall, its New York headquarters, having been deprived of light by the turning off of the gas, at the order of the party managers, lighted up the hall with candles, by the aid of lucifer or loco-foco matches, and so passed its resolutions. Copperhead,' the name of a venomous serpent, was applied to the peace party by the advocates of the war for the Union.

REPU’LSION, like Caloric, Luminous Corpuscles, and other crude hypotheses of medieval times appears to be doomed to speedy extinction. The apparent repulsion between the particles of a gas, in virtue of which it exerts pressure on the containing vessel, is now known to be due to motion (see HEAT). A wet cork and an oiled one, floating on water, repel each other-a phenomenon fully accounted for by capillary attraction; as is that of the apparent repulsion of mercury by glass, which is shewn to be due to the fact, that mercury attracts itself more than it attracts glass. No one now believes that a balloon rises while a stone falls, because the former is repelled, and the latter attracted, by the earth. The last is a very good example, because it clearly shews how apparent repulsion may be the result of attraction. The earth attracts the balloon less than it attracts an equal bulk of the medium (air) in which it floats; and, consequently, the pressure of the air on the balloon is more than sufficient to support its weight. The moon raises tides not only on the side of the earth nearest her, but also on that furthest from her. No one imagines that she attracts the nearer water, and repels the further. We know that she attracts the nearer water more, and the further less, than she attracts the earth; and that the apparent repulsion is thus merely a difference of attractions.

It is not quite so clear how we are to account generally for repulsion in Electricity (q. v.), Magnetism (q. v.), and Electro-magnetism (q. v.), though many of these phenomena are known (especially by the beautiful experimental researches of Faraday) to bear explanations precisely analogous to that of the balloon above alluded to. There are also very curious problems, apparently involving repulsion, connected with the behaviour of the tails of comets. But it is reasonable to suppose that, in all probability, we shall soon be able to account for all these phenomena by simple differences of attraction on the body influenced and the medium which surrounds it. Our real difficulty will thus be reduced to the explanation of attraction itself, which promises to be a problem of a far higher order of complexity. For an account of some of the modern speculations on this subject, see FORCE.

technical term, which it is not in English law. REPU’TE, in Scotch Law, is used sometimes as a Thus, a habit and repute thief is one who, as a matter of fact, is notoriously a thief. So habit and Thus, a habit and repute thief is one who, as a repute marriage is a marriage constituted between parties who have notoriously lived as man and wife, and are supposed by neighbours and friends to be married, though there never was a regular marriage.

REPUTED O'WNERSHIP is a phrase used in the English Bankruptcy Law to denote that the bankrupt at the time of his bankruptcy was apparently the owner of goods in his possession. The general rule is, that whatever belonged to the bankrupt at that date goes to his assignees in bankruptcy, for the purposes of sale, and distribution of the proceeds among his creditors. But as a trader often has the goods of others in his possession with their consent, and thus has the appearance of a greater capital or stock than he possesses, and thereby obtains greater credit than he would otherwise do, it is provided by the Bankrupt Act that if the bankrupt at the date of his bankruptcy shall, with the consent of the true owner, have in his possession, order, or disposition any goods or chattels whereof he was the reputed owner, or whereof he had taken upon him the sale, alteration, or disposition as owner, the Bankruptcy Court shall have power to order the same to be sold and disposed of for the benefit of the creditors under the

REQUENA - RESEDACEAE.

RE'REDOS (Fr., behind the back), the wall at the back of an altar, seat, large fireplace, &c. In churches, the reredos is usually in the form of a screen detached from the east wall, and is invariably ornamented with niches, statues, &c., or with paintings or tapestry. Very fine examples exist at Durham, St Albans, &c.

RE'SCRIPTS (Lat. rescripta), answers of the popes and emperors to questions in jurisprudence officially propounded to them. Rescripta principis were one of the authoritative sources of the civil law, and consisted of the answers of the emperor to those who consulted him, either as public functionaries or as individuals, on questions of law. They were often applied for by private persons, more especially women and soldiers, to solve their doubts or grant them privileges. The rescripts directed to corporate and municipal bodies were known as Pragmatica sanctiones, a name which has found its way into the public law of Europe. See PRAGMATIC SANCTION. Rescripts might gradually come to have the force of law, in so far as their determinations in particular cases were of general application.

RESERVATION.

RESERVATION is a term used in lease and also witty ingenuity with which Pascal mixed up in grants of a less estate than the fee-simple. Thus, examples of both, and applied to one what was if A, the owner in fee-simple of real estate, grant a lease to B, a third party, he does not give away his whole interest, but merely part of it, and that part not given away is said to be reserved or excepted. The word reservation is, however, chiefly used in reference to rent, it being said that a landlord, on letting his land, reserves to himself a rent out of the premises, and he has certain well-known remedies for the recovery of such Rent (q. v.).

RESERVATION, MENTAL (Lat. reservatio or restrictio mentalis), the act of reserving or holding back soome word or clause which is necessary to convey fully the meaning really intended by the speaker. It differs from equivocation (Lat. equivocatio or amphibolia) in this, that in the latter the words employed, although doubtful, and perhaps not fitted naturally to convey the real meaning of the speaker, are yet, absolutely speaking, and without the addition of any further word or clause, susceptible of that meaning. Thus, an example of an equivocation would be: 'I did not write this libel,' meaning, 'I did not perform the mechanical operation of writing it with a pen,' although I had really composed and issued it. A mental reservation might be involved in the same words, if one were to say: 'I did not write this libel,' mentally withholding the word 'to-day,' although he had written it 'yesterday,' or on some earlier day. Few questions in casuistry have excited more controversy, or have been the subject of fiercer recrimination, than that of the lawfulness of equivocation and mental reservation. In the celebrated Letters of Pascal (q. v.) against the Jesuits, it was one of the most prominent, and used as he employed it, the most effective topics; and Pascal's charges against the Jesuit casuistry of that day have been repeated in almost every popular controversy on the subject which has since arisen. There are several varieties of mental reservation, differing from each other, and all differing from equivocation under its several forms. But as regards the morality of the subject, all the forms of language calculated to deceive may be classed together, and may be treated according to the same common principles. Mental reservation is of two kinds, purely mental and not purely mental. By the former designation is meant a mental reservation which cannot be detected, whether in the words themselves, or in the circumstances in which they are spoken. Of this kind, would be the mental reservation implied if a person, on being asked if he had seen A. B. (whom he really had just seen walking by), were to reply: I have not seen him,' meaning 'riding on horseback.' A 'not purely mental' reservation is that which, although not naturally implied or contained in the words, may nevertheless be inferred or suspected, either from them or the circumstances in which they are used. Of this kind would be the mental reservation of a servant, in giving the ordinary answer to a visitor's inquiry for his master: 'Not at home,' although his master were really in the house; or that of a confessor, who, in a country where the privileges of the secret of the confessional are known and admitted, on being asked whether a certain person had committed a crime, which the confessor knew from his confession that he had committed, should answer: 'I do not know,' meaning outside of the confessional.' And, in general, all such doubtful forms, whether of mental reservation or of equivocation, may be divided into discoverable and undiscoverable. Much, although certainly not all the odium which has been excited against the casuists for their teaching on this head, has arisen from the confusion of their views as to these two classes of mental reservation; and the

really said of the other, did far more to damage the theological reputation of his adversaries, as a school, than any of the genuine really objectionable decisions which he cited from the writings of individual divines. Mental reservation has formed a subject of discussion for Protestant as well as Catholic divines; but without entering into a detailed history of this curious branch of casuistry, we shall content ourselves with stating briefly the chief principles on which the decisions of the most approved writers, especially of the Roman Catholic School, are founded.

First, 'purely mental' reservations, and 'absolutely undiscoverable' equivocations, are held to be in al cases unlawful, such forms of speech being in truth lies; inasmuch as they have but one real sensewhich is not the sense intended by the person whe uses them, and hence can only serve to deceive. This doctrine is held by all sound Catholic casuists, and the contradictory doctrine is expressly con demned by Pope Innocent XI. (Propp. 26, 27). On the contrary, mental reservations not purely mental,' and 'discoverable' equivocations, are held to be not inconsistent with truth, and, in certain circumstances, when there is necessity or weighty reason for resorting to them, allowable. For the absolute admissibility of the expedient of mental reservation and of equivocation in such circumstances, casuists allege scriptural precedent from Genesis xx. 12, Matt. xi. 14, Acts xxiii. 6, and other passages; and the principles on which their use, in such case, is defended, are (1), that there is supposed to be in the circumstances justification, and even necessity, for not making known the whole truth; and (2) that the mental reservation in the case supposed does not amount to more than a mere withholding the entire truth, inasmuch as what is stated is absolutely true, and the real meaning of the speaker is absolutely contained in it, and discoverable from it; and the false construction put upon it by the hearer, although permitted through necessity or grave reason by the speaker, is not positively put forward by him. A historical example of such equivocation or reservation is in the well-known answer of St Athanasius to the question of the party who were in pursuit of him, and who, overtaking him, but not knowing his person, asked what way Athanasius had gone. "He is not far off' replied Athanasius, and the party passed on in pursuit. A less easily discoverable equivocation is ascribed to St Francis of Assisi, who, when a gang of robbers in pursuit of a traveller asked him whether he had seen the traveller pass by, put his hand up the sleeve of his habit, and replied: He did not pass this way,' meaning, up his sleeve.' And an ordinary example of discoverable mental reservation is that of a person who, on being asked by one to whom he could not with safety give a refusal, whether he has any money, should reply: 'No,' meaning, 'none to lend to 'No,' meaning, ‘none to lend to you.' In order, however, to justify the use of these devices of speech, casuists require that there shall be some grave and urgent reason on the speaker's part; as, for example, the necessity of keeping a state secret, or a secret of the confessional, or of a professional character, or even the confidence intrusted by a friend, or the ordinary and fitting privacy which is required for the comfort and security of domestic life, and of the peaceful intercourse of society; and that the concealed sense of the form of speech employed, although it may be actually undiscovered, and even unlikely to be discovered, may yet be, in all the circumstances, really discoverable. On these two leading theoretical principles, the majority of

RESERVATUM ECCLESIASTICUM-RESERVOIR.

casuists are agreed. But a wide field for practical discussion lies between them, in the variety of senses which may be attached to the phrases 'not purely mental' and 'discoverable;' and it is in the practical interpretation of these terms that some of the casuists have found scope for the introduction of the lax decisions which have brought odium upon casuistry. Much of this odium has fallen upon the Society of the Jesuits, to such a degree, that their name has been popularly associated with the worst forms of the practice of mental reservation. See JESUITS and PASCAL.-See Scavini, Theologia Moralis, ii. 23; Murray, Theological Essays, iv. 274, and foll.

yeomanry, and volunteers are capable of taking
the field in conjunction with regular troops.
The reserve of the British possessions abroad
amounts nominally to 90,780 men, but the actually
qualified combatants are probably far less numerous.
The reserve forces of the principal states of the
world are variously composed, as in France, the
national guard; in Prussia and other German
states, the Landwehr, with, as a last resort,
Landsturm, which amounts to a levée en masse of
the population able to bear arms.

The Army of Reserve is a force governed by a series of regulations under authority of 30 and 31 Vict., c. 110 (1867). It is to be composed of 50,000 men, divided into two classes: Class I. numbers 20,000, who RESERVA TUM ECCLESIA'STICUM, a pro- must be soldiers that have not served more than one vision of the religious Peace of Westphalia, so very term of enlistment, who engage for a term of five celebrated in German history, that a brief explana-years, receiving £3 per annum bounty, and are liable tion seems necessary. By this clause of the Treaty when on permanent service to do duty in any part of of Westphalia (1549), it was enacted, that if the the world. Class II. numbers 30,000, who must be holder of any ecclesiastical dignity, or of any terrisoldiers that decline to take a second engagement, or torial jurisdiction or property annexed to such ecclesiastical dignity, should change his religion, to service within the United Kingdom. They must are military or marine pensioners, and are liable only the dignity, territorial jurisdiction, or property not exceed the age of 45 years at the time of enrolheld by him, should not be thereby alienated from ment. They receive a bounty of £2 per annum, and the church from which he seceded, but should be the period of service varies according to the time that still 'reserved' for that church, and for the legiti- they have already been in the army or marines. The mate successors of the seceder. It was chiefly out of the disputes regarding the violations of the pay is on the scale of two shillings per day for privates up to three shillings and sixpence for the officers, and R. E., that the Thirty Years' War arose. sixpence addition if called out in aid of the civil power. Up to Jan. 1, 1870, only 1939 men had entered Class I., and only 3885 had been obtained for Class II. The men brought into the Army Reserve Force, by the act of 1867, are exclusively enrolled pensioners. The Army Reserve Force numbered on Jan. 1, 1870, only 20,467 men.

RESERVE, in Army affairs, has several meanings. First, in a battle, the reserve is a body of troops held somewhere in the rear, generally out of fire, and kept fresh, in order that they may interfere with decisive force at any point where yielding troops require support, or an advantage gained needs powerful following up. The reserve of ammunition is a magazine of warlike stores, situated between an army and its base of operations, ufficiently retired from the front to be safe from sudden raids of the enemy, and at the same time advanced enough to allow of the supply actually in the field being speedily replenished.

The

The reserve of a nation is that force upon which the national defence is thrown, when its regular armies have failed in securing its safety. This reserve may be the levée en masse of the whole adult male population, or it may consist of a smaller section of the people duly trained to arms. latter is, of course, the preferable system, when the arms of scientific modern warfare are to be brought into action. In different countries, the reserves are organised on very different principles. In Great Britain, they comprise the army of reserve, the enrolled pensioners, both of which consist of old soldiers, the militia, yeomanry, volunteers, and trained constabulary. According to the returns for 1864, the strength of this reserve (omitting the constabulary) was as follows, all being trained men, and instantly available on emergency :

RESERVED LIST, in the Royal Navy, is a device for expediting the promotion of officers who are still of an age for active service. Under certain Orders in Council of 1851 and 1853, old officers of good service are selected for promotion to the next grade on the Reserved List. This forms a bar to any further promotion; and removes the officer from active employment, except in the remote contingency of the Active List being exhausted, when these 'reserved' officers would be liable to be called upon to serve. For all practical purposes, however, the Reserved List is a retired list. The officers placed on it obtain the half-pay of the rank to which they are promoted, and their removal gives vacancies for the promotion of younger and more efficient men. In 1864, there were on the Reserved List 113 flag-officers, 92 captains, 99 commanders, 278 lieutenants, 92 masters, 2 paymasters, and 1 secretary; in all, 677 officers, costing annually £132,760 for their half-pay.

RE'SERVOIR, a receptacle for storing water for any purpose, but chiefly for the supply of towns, for driving machinery, feeding canals, irrigation, or for some process of manufactures. Generally, every water-works' establishment, for the supply of a town, requires to construct one or more reservoirs for providing compensation to the mills situated on the stream, for the water that is abstracted from of its feeders. any

1,164 13,328 109,986 The most advantageous position for a store reser14,268 voir is that where there is a narrow gorge in a 165,413 valley widening out upwards into a flat expanse, thereby enabling a comparatively small dam or embankment formed in the gorge, to impound a The army of reserve and enrolled pensioners could large body of water; but in many cases where be forthwith raised to 35,000, or even 40,000 men, there is no such choice, the embankment may reall fit for any sort of garrison-duty. The militia quire to be placed across a wide part of a valley could be augmented to 140,000, the quotas from which narrows as it descends, thereby requiring a Scotland and Ireland being 30,000 below the great embankment, in proportion to the quantity maximum fixed by parliament. The militia, of water impounded. Sometimes reservoirs have

204

RESERVOIR-RESHD.

cases, there is imperatively required a waste-weir, to allow flood-waters to escape without risk of overflowing the dam. It ought, if possible, to be placed on the solid ground; and if it can be cut through solid rock, that is best, and saves a great expense for masonry. The width of the waste-weir must be regulated by the catchment or extent of gatheringground of the reservoir, and by the rainfall of the reservoir having a small area ought to have a larger waste-weir than one having a larger area, as the latter would allow flood-water to accumulate without rising to so high a level as it would in the former. Generally, however, from 12 to 20 feet of length of waste-weir may suffice for a square mile of catchment. In some cases, dams across gorges, for the purpose of forming reservoirs, are constructed of walls of heavy masonry, instead of earthwork embankments. Those across rivers for diverting the water into mill-lades, and for retaining the water which would otherwise be wasted at meal-hours, are generally constructed of stone, but sometimes of timber or iron.

to be formed on flattish ground affording no great natural facilities for storing water; and in such cases they may require to be embanked wholly or nearly round and round. Where a reservoir requires to be constructed on perfectly level ground, the excavation must be calculated to be exactly equal to the embanking. The worst possible situation for a store reservoir is on the slope of a hill. In many cases, natural lakes are used as reser-district; but for a given catchment and rainfall, a voirs, means being adopted for raising or lowering the surface of the water, the difference between the lowest and the highest level of the lake's surface, multiplied by its area, being the measure of the available storage. Instances of this occur in Loch Leven, Kinross-shire, for the supply of the mills on the river Leven; in Loch Katrine and Loch Vennachar, for the supply of the city of Glasgow, and for the compensation required by the millers on the river Teith, in consequence of the abstraction of the Loch Katrine water; and in many other similar cases both for the use of towns and for water-power. The capacity of a reservoir necessary for making nearly the whole water of a district available for use, depends much on the climate. Where droughts are of long continuance, its capacity requires to be proportionally large, but generally in Great Britain a capacity of six or seven months' supply is reckoned

The word dam is very often used incorrectly in Scotland to indicate a reservoir or sheet of water, instead of the structure made use of to form the reservoir, which is its proper meaning. A reservoir requires a sufficient outlet at the bottom by means of a tunnel, culvert, or iron pipes provided with suitable sluices, and these ought properly to be so arranged as that access can be had to them even when the reservoir is full.

Most of the disasters from the bursting of reservoirs have arisen from the want of sufficient wasteweirs, and from the embankment being overtopped in consequence by the water, and the outer slope being washed away, so as to deprive the puddlewall of its support; but some accidents have occurred from the outlet being by a wooden box or trough through the embankment, and that being neglected and allowed to get rotten. The bursting of the Bilberry Reservoir, above Holmfirth, which occurred in 1852, arose from the embankment having sunk to, and being allowed to remain at, a level actually below that of the waste-weir, so that it was overtopped; but the Bradfield Reservoir embankment of the Sheffield Water-works which burst in 1864 gave way before the water had risen to the level of the waste-weir; and much difference of opinion exists as to the cause; some engineers contending that the disaster was caused by bad workmanship in the embankment itself, and others that it was owing to a landslip under the embankment.

Fig. 2.-Transverse Section of Reservoir. impounding water is an earthwork embankment, with a slope towards the water of 3 or 4 horizontal to 1 perpendicular, a breadth across the top of from 6 to 12 feet, the height being from 4 to 7 feet above the water, and an outside slope of from 2 to 2 horizontal to 1 perpendicular. The earthwork ought to be formed in thin layers well rammed, and to have a puddle-wall of good well-worked clay in the centre, the foundation of the puddle being a trench dug down to impervious rock or clay. The face towards the water requires to be protected by stones; and when a reservoir is large, those stones must be pitched'-i. e., regularly set by hand-so as to be able to resist the lash of the wave. In all

Distributing reservoirs for towns, used chiefly for storing up the surplus water during the night, which otherwise might mostly go to waste, ought to hold at least half a day's supply, and ought to be placed high enough to command the highest parts of the town. They are generally built of masonry or brickwork, but are sometimes made of cast iron, and now occasionally of boiler-plate-in which last case they are best of circular form. There is one of that description on the highest part of Edinburgh Castle. In India and in the south of Europe, where long droughts prevail, very large reservoirs have been constructed for supplying water for the purpose of irrigation.

RESHD, one of the most industrious and extensively commercial towns in Persia, capital of the maritime province of Ghilan, stands on the Bay of Enzelli, a lagoon on the south-west shore of the Caspian Sea, 150 miles north-west of Teheran. It is in great part covered with trees, so that no accurate idea of its extent can be obtained by viewing it from any one point. The houses are all tiled and are neatly built, and the streets paved; water is supplied by an