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PURBECK-PURCHASE-SYSTEM.

of the shells of a small oyster. This is preceded by fresh-water strata, abounding in the remains of Entomostraca, and containing some beds of cherty limestone, in which little bodies, believed to have been the spore-cases of species of Chara, have been found. At the base of this sub-group, a marine shale occurs, containing shells and impressions apparently of a large Zostera.

These rest on strata of brackish-water origin; and then follows a singular old vegetable soil, containing the roots and stools of Cycads, and the stems of coniferous trees. From its black colour and incoherent condition, this layer has received from the quarrymen the name of the 'Dirt-bed' (q. v.). This rests on the basement bed of the whole group, which is a fresh-water limestone, charged with Entomostraca and shells, and contains the thin layer in which Mr Beckles has lately found the remains of several species of mammalia.

PURBECK MARBLE is an impure fresh-water limestone, containing immense numbers of the shells of Paludina, from which it derives its 'figure' when polished. It was formerly much used in the internal decoration of churches and other buildings in the southern counties of England. It is quarried in the peninsula of Purbeck, in Dorsetshire, and belongs to the upper section of the Purbeck Beds (q. v.).

partly in a Paris edition by Eugène Burnouf, which remained incomplete through the premature death of that distinguished scholar; that of the Markan' d'eya-P., edited at Calcutta in the Bibliotheca Indica, by the Rev. K. M. Banerjea; and that of the Linga-P., edited at Bombay; for, regarding a fourth, the Garud'a-P., edited at Benares and Bombay, it seems doubtful whether that little work is the same as the P. spoken of in the native list. Besides these, The Lower Purbecks begin with a series of freshsmall portions from the Padma, Skanda, Bhavish-water marls, containing Entomostraca and shells. yottara, Márkan'd'eya, and other Purân'as have been published in India and Europe. Of translations, we have only to name the excellent French translation by Burnouf of the first nine books of the Bhagavata, and the elegant translation of the whole Vishn'u-P., together with valuable notes by the late Professor H. H. Wilson, which is now in the course of republication in his works, in a new edition, amplified with numerous notes, by Professor F. E. Hall. For general information on the character and contents of the Purân'as, see especially Wilson's preface to his translation of the Vishn'u-P. (Works, vol. vi, Lond. 1864), Burnouf's preface to his edition of the Bhagavata (Paris, 1840), Wilson's Analysis of the Purân'as (Works, vol. iii. Lond. 1864, edited by Professor R. Rost), K. M. Banerjea's Introduction to the Markan'd'eya (Calcutta, 1862), and John Muir's Original Sanscrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, vols. 1-4 (Lond. 1858-1863). PU'RBECK, ISLE OF, a district in the south of Dorsetshire, 14 miles in length from west to east, and 7 miles in breadth, is bounded on the N. by the river Frome and Poole Harbour, on the E. and S. by the English Channel, and on the W. by the stream of Luckford Lake, which, rising in the park of Lulworth Castle, flows north, and joins the Frome. On the west, however, the water-boundary is not complete, the district being connected with the main portion of the county at East Lulworth; and the so-called Isle of P. is therefore really a peninsula. In ancient times, the Isle of P. was a royal deerforest. See PURBECK BEDS and PURBECK MARBLE. PURBECK BEDS, a group of strata forming the upper members of the Oolitic Period (q. v.), and so named because they are well developed in the peninsula called the Isle of Purbeck (q. v.), south of Poole Estuary in Dorsetshire. They are, like the Wealden beds above them, chiefly fresh-water formations; but their organic remains join them more closely to the marine-formed Oolites below, than to the superior Wealden series. Though of a very limited geographical extent, the Purbeck beds have yet considerable importance, from the changes in animal life that took place during their deposition. Generally less than 200 feet in thick ness, they, however, exhibit three distinct and peculiar sets of animal remains. This has caused them to be arranged into three corresponding groups, known as the Upper, Middle, and Lower Purbecks. The Upper Purbecks are entirely fresh-water, and the strata are largely charged with the remains of shells and fish; the cases of the Entomostraca Cyprides are very abundant and characteristic. The building-stone called Purbeck Marble belongs

to this division.

The Middle Purbecks record numerous changes during their deposition. The newest of the strata consists of fresh-water limestone, with the remains of Cyprides, turtles and fish. This rests on brackish water-beds-Cyrena with layers of Corbula and Melania. Below this, there are marine strata, containing many species of sea-shells. Then follow some fresh and brackish-water limestone and shales, which again rest on the cinder-bed, a marine argillaceous deposit containing a vast accumulation

PURCELL, HENRY, the most eminent of English musicians, was born at Westminster in 1658, and was son of Henry Purcell, one of the gentlemen of the Chapel-royal appointed at the Restoration. He lost his father at the age of six, and was indebted for his musical training to Cook, Humphreys, and Dr Blow. His compositions at a very early age shewed evidence of talent. In 1676, he was chosen to succeed Dr Christopher Gibbons as organist of Westminster Abbey; and in 1682 he was made organist of the Chapel-royal. He wrote numerous anthems and other compositions for the church, which were eagerly sought after for the use of the various cathe drals, and have retained their place to the present day. P.'s dramatic and chamber compositions are even more remarkable. Among the former may be mentioned his music to the Tempest, his songs in Dryden's King Arthur, his music to Howard's and Dryden's Indian Queen, to Urfey's Don Quixote, &c. A great many of his cantatas, odes, glees, catches, and rounds are yet familiar to lovers of vocal music, In 1683, he composed twelve sonatas for two violins and a bass. P. studied the Italian masters deeply, and often made reference to his obligations to them. In originality and vigour, as well as harmony and variety of expression, he far surpassed both his predecessors and his contemporaries. His church music has been collected and edited from the original MS. by Mr Vincent Novello, in a folio work which appeared in 1826-1836, with a portrait and essay on his life and works. He died of consumption in 1695, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

much misunderstood arrangement in the British PURCHASE-SYSTEM, a highly unpopular and army, by which a large proportion-probably a half -of the first appointments of officers and their sub, first formation of an English standing army, and was sequent promotion is effected. It dates from the formally recognised in the reign of Queen Anne. The system itself is very simple. A price is fixed by regulation for each substantive rank (see PROMO. TION), viz.

Lieutenant-colonel,

Difference. £1300

Price. £4500

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PURCHASER-PURGATORY.

When any officer holding one of these regimental commissions desires to retire from the army, he is entitled to sell his commission for the price stipulated in the above table-£1500, in the case of a lieutenant-colonel. This sum is made up by the senior major, who is willing and able to purchase, buying the rank of lieutenant-colonel for £1300; the senior captain, willing and able to purchase, buying a majority for £1400; a lieutenant purchasing his company for £1100; a cornet or ensign becoming lieutenant on payment of £250; and lastly by the sale to some young gentleman of an ensigncy or cornetcy for £450. In practice, fancy prices higher than the above are often given, according to the popularity of a regiment, but this is only sub rosa. The value of commissions in the Guards is also greater; but as they constitute but a few regiments, and are mostly officered from the nobility, they do not need particular description.

No commission can be purchased by one officer unless another officer vacates his commission by its sale. Death-vacancies, vacancies caused by augmenting a regiment, vacancies resulting from the promotion of colonels to be major-generals, are filled without purchase, usually by seniority. No rank above lieutenant-colonel can be purchased.

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1. Laxatives.-A purgative is said to be laxative when it operates so mildly as merely to evacuate the intestines without occasioning any general excitement of the system, or any extraordinary increase of watery secretion from the capillaries of the alimentary canal. This group includes manna, sulphur, cassia pulp, castor oil, &c.; and purgatives of this kind are employed when we wish to evacuate the bowels with the least possible irritation, as in children and pregnant women; in persons suffering from hernia, piles, stricture or prolapsus of the rectum, &c.

Senna

It is alleged with truth that purchase enables the rich man to step over the head of the poorer, but perhaps better qualified, non-purchasing officer; and that money decides where merit should be the only guide. These disadvantages, however, it is replied, are not unmixed. Purchase, it is argued, 2. Saline or Cooling Purgatives, such as sulphate introduces into the army men of a very high of magnesia, and potassio-tartrate of soda, either in class in society, who give a tone to the whole simple solution, or in the form of Seidlitz Powder of military life. A great proportion of these (q. v.). They give rise to more watery evacuations wealthy men enter with the intention of merely than the members of the preceding group, and are spending a few years in the army, and then sell- much employed in inflammatory and febrile cases. 3. Milder Acrid Purgatives, such as senna, ing out. This tends, among other things, to keep the officers young-a great advantage; and, rhubarb, and aloes. They possess acrid and stimufurther, provides in the country, among its gentle-lating properties, and are intermediate in activity men, a body of men accustomed to military life, between the last and the next group. who prove themselves well adapted for com- (generally in the form of Black Draught) is emmands in the militia and volunteers. Moreover, ployed when we want an active but not very selection exercised arbitrarily, as it must be when irritant purgative. Rhubarb is especially adapted the men from whom the selection is to be made are for patients when there is a want of tone in the scattered all over the world away from the selecting alimentary canal. Aloes is used in torpid conditions power, would be certain to create dissatisfaction, and of the large intestine; but as this drug irritates the would probably be substantially unfair. If seniority rectum, it should be avoided in cases of piles and were the rule, officers could scarcely change from of pregnancy, especially if there is any threatening one regiment to another; but under purchase, of miscarriage. 4. Drastic Purgatives, such as jalap, scammony, exchange is a common thing, and is the greatest boon to the poor officer who holds to his original gamboge, croton oil, colocynth, and elaterium, when corps, for the rich officers, for private reasons of swallowed in large doses, act as irritant poisons, locality, &c., are glad to change frequently from and are employed in medicine when the bowels regiment to regiment, entering in each case at the have resisted the action of milder purgatives, or bottom of the list of officers of their rank in their when we wish to exert a powerful derivative action new regiment. This, of course, pushes the non- upon the intestinal mucous membrane (as in cases exchanging officer to the top, and the first death or of apoplexy, when croton oil is commonly used), or other non-purchase promotion then falls to him. An when it is necessary to remove a large quantity of officer who has not purchased at all, may neverthe-water from the system, as in dropsical affections, in less sell his commission for its full value if he has served twenty years, or for a sum less than the regulated price after shorter service. This is also a spur to promotion. On the whole, though exposed to the disadvantage and annoyance of being passed over by younger officers, the non-purchasing, i.e., the poor officers benefit by the purchase-system. This is proved by the slow progress officers make in corps where purchase does not exist, as, for instance, in the Royal Marines. Few would counsel the formation of a new army with such a system as purchase; but, on the other hand, it has its advantages in its working; and, now once established, would be most difficult to extinguish. The estimated cost of buying out existing rights of sale is calculated at from £3,000,000 to £5,000,000.

which case, elaterium, from its hydragogue power, is usually employed.

5. Mercurial Purgatives, the chief of which are calomel, blue pill, and gray powder. They are commonly given with the view of increasing the discharge of bile, although their power in this respect has recently been denied. As their action is uncertain, they are usually combined with or followed by other purgatives. Podophyllin (q. v.) has recently been much used for the purpose of exciting bilious evacuations. Hamilton's book On Purgative Medicines, which was published more than half a century ago, is still the standard work on the subject of this article.

PU'RGATORY (Lat. purgatorium, from purgo, I cleanse) is the name given, in the Roman Catholio

PURGATORY-PURGING NUT.

and oriental churches, to a place of purgation, in which, according to their religious system, souls after death either are purified from venial sins (peccata venalia), or undergo the temporal punishment which, after the guilt of mortal sin (peccata mortalia) has been remitted, still remains to be endured by the sinner. The ultimate eternal happiness of their souls is supposed to be secured; but they are detained for a time in a state of purgation, in order to be fitted to appear in that Presence into which nothing imperfect can enter. As there is some obscurity and much misunderstanding on this subject, we shall briefly explain the doctrine of Catholics, as collected from authentic sources, distinguishing those things which are held by them as 'of faith,' from the opinions which are freely discussed in their schools. Catholics hold as articles of their faith (1) that there is a purgatory in the sense explained above, and (2) that the souls there detained derive relief from the prayers of the faithful and from the sacrifice of the mass. The Scriptural grounds alleged by them in support of this view are 2d Macc. xii. 43-46 (on which they rely, not merely on the supposition of its being inspired, but even as a simple historical testimony), Matt. xii. 32, 1st Cor. iii. 11-15, 1st Cor. xv. 29; as well as on certain less decisive indications contained in the language of some of the Psalms-as xxxvii. (in Auth. Vers. xxxviii.) 1, and lxv. 12. And in all these passages they argue not alone from the words themselves, but from the interpretation of them by the Fathers, as containing the doctrine of a purgatory. The direct testimonies cited by Catholic writers from the Fathers to the belief of their respective ages as to the existence of a purgatory, are very numerous. We may instance among the Greeks: Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, vii. 12; Origen, Hom. xvi. c. 5, 6 in Jeremiam; vi. Hom. in Exod.; xiv. Hom. in Levit.; xxviii. Hom. in Numb.; Eusebius, De Vita Constantini, iv. 71; Athanasius, Quæst. xxxiv. ad Antioch.; Cyril of Jerusalem, Cat. Mystag. v. 9; Basil, Hom. in Psalm, v. 7; Gregory of Nazianzen, xli. Orat. de Laude Athanasii; Gregory of Nyssa, Orat. de Bapt.; as also Epiphanius, Ephrem, Theodoret, and others. Among the Latins: Tertullian, Cyprian, Arnobius, Lactantius, Hilary, Ambrose, and above all, Augustine, from whom many most decisive passages are cited; Paulinus of Nola; and Gregory the Great, in whom the doctrine is found in all the fulness of its modern detail. The epitaphs of the catacombs, too, supply Catholic controversialists with some testimonies to the belief of a purgatory, and of the value of the intercessory prayers of the living in obtaining not merely repose, but relief from suffering, for the deceased; and the liturgies of the various rites are still more decisive and circumstantial. Beyond these two points, Catholic faith, as defined by the Council of Trent, does not go; and the council expressly prohibits the popular discussion of the 'more difficult and subtle questions, and everything that tends to curiosity, or superstition, or savours of filthy lucre.' Of the further questions as to the nature of purgatory, there is one of great historical importance, inasmuch as it constitutes one of the grounds of difference between the Greek and Latin churches. As to the existence of purgatory, both these churches are agreed; and they are further agreed that it is a place of suffering; but, while the Latins commonly hold that this suffering is by fire,' the Greeks do not determine the manner of the suffering, but are content to regard it as through tribulation.' The decree of union in the Council of Florence (1439) left this point free for discussion. Equally free are the questions as to the situation of purgatory; as to the duration of the purgatorial suffering; as to the

probable number of its inmates; as to whether they have, while there detained, a certainty of their ultimate salvation; and whether a particular judg‐ ment' takes place on each individual case immedi ately after death.-See Bellarminus, De Purgatorio; Suaresius, De Purgatorio; and on the Greek portion of the subject, Leo Allatius, De utriusque Ecclesiæ in Dogmate de Purgatorio perpetuâ Consensione. The medieval doctrine and practice regarding purgatory were among the leading grounds of the protest of the Waldenses and other sects of that age. The Reformers as a body rejected the doctrine.

What is called the 'historical'or critical view of its genesis, is well given by Neander (Dogmengeschichte, vol. i.). He conceives that its source is to be sought for in the ancient Persian doctrine of a purifying conflagration which was to precede the victory of Ormuz, and consume everything that was impure. From the Persians it passed with modifications to the Jews, and from them found its way into the ethical speculations of the more cultivated Christians. It harmonised admirably with the wide-spread philosophical notion borrowed by the Gnostic Christians from Neo-Platonism, that matter is inherently evil. If then the body was to rise, it must be purged of evil, and the instrument of purification--fire, was at hand for the purpose. Moreover, the high and pure conception of the character of God revealed in the New Testament, necessitating a corresponding moral excellence on the part of his worshippers-without holiness shall no man see the Lord-must have greatly assisted in the establishment of the doctrine, for how could men, only lately gross heathens, possessing yet but the rudiments of the new faith, and with most of their heathen habits still clinging about them, be pronounced 'holy' or 'fit for the presence of God?' Their 'faith' in Christ was sufficient to save them, but the work of sanctification was incomplete when they died, and must go on. Probably it was a strong Christian feeling of this sort that determined the reception of the doctrine of purgatory into the creed of the Catholic church, rather than any Gnostic philosophisings, though the Neo-Platonic divines of Alexandria are the first to mention it.

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Protestants generally reply to the arguments of Roman Catholics on the subject of purgatory, by refusing to admit the authority of tradition or the testimonies of the Fathers, and at the same time by alleging that most-if not all of the passages quoted from the Fathers, as in favour of purgatory, are insufficient to prove that they held any such doctrine as that now held by the Roman Catholic Church, some of them properly relating only to the subject of prayer for the dead, and others to the doctrine of Limbus (q. v.). That the doctrine of purgatory is the fair development of that which maintains that prayer ought to be made for the dead, Protestants generally acknowledge, but refuse to admit that the Fathers carried out their views to any such consequence. As to the alleged evidences from Scripture, they are commonly set aside by Protestants as merely ridiculous. much vaunted argument from the second book of Maccabees, is of course contemned, as being from an apocryphal book, and not one of the best books of the Apocrypha; besides, that the passage relates to nothing more than prayer for the dead. The text Matt. xii. 32, is explained as relating to the final judgment; and 1 Cor. iii. 11-15, as relating to a trial of works, and not of persons; whilst 1 Cor. xv. 29 is regarded as having nothing more to do with the subject than any verse taken at random from any part of the Bible.

PURGING NUT. See PHYSIC NUT.

The

PURIFICATION-PURITANS.

PURIFICATION, in a Biblical sense, is the act through which an individual became fit to approach the Deity, or to mix freely in the community, in cases where a certain bodily or other disability had kept him out of the pale of the latter. The purification consisted chiefly in expiations, ablutions, sometimes accompanied by special sacrifices. Priests and Levites were consecrated for the Divine service by 'purification;' proselytes had to undergo it at baptism; and special religious acts could only be performed by those who had bathed their bodies.' Generally, no one was allowed to enter the Temple or synagogue without having washed or 'sanctified' himself; and in the post-exilian period, bathing was considered (chiefly by the Pharisees and Essenes) as one of the chief duties of piety. In general, the Mosaic Law distinguishes between clean' and unclean' persons as well as things, calling 'unclean' all that with which an Israelite is not to come in contact. It has been erroneously assumed that all the Levitical laws of purity and purification have a physical or medical reason that is, that infection was to be prevented through them ; but this can only have been the case in some instances. At the same time, we cannot deny that we are at a loss for the general principle on which they were based. There can be no doubt that cleanness, like every other virtue, if not enforced on religious grounds, would have had few devotees in those days, and among an eastern people; while, again, a hot climate requires a much greater attention to outward purity than more temperate zones. Compared with the Indian and Persian laws in this respect, the Jewish ones seem much less minute and harassing. For the purification from the severer kinds of uncleanness, a certain 'water of uncleanness' (Lev. xv.) was prepared; and the different acts to be performed for the readmission of the leper into the community (Lev. xiv. 4-32), shew plainly that his was considered the last stage of impurity. Identical with the first stage of the leper's purification are the ceremonies to be performed in the case of infected houses and garments. The sixth Seder of the Mishnah, in 11 treatises (there is no Gemara to this portion, except to Niddah), contains the most detailed regulations (as fixed by tradition) on this point. The washing of hands, we may add in conclusion, was in later times considered ritually necessary, in accordance with the Talmudical maxim, that 'every table should properly be sanctified into an altar.' See UNCLEANNESS.

All the Jewish ceremonial purifications are commonly regarded by Christian theologians as emblematic of the necessity of holiness in the people of the Lord, and particularly in all acts of worship.

PURIFICATION OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY, FEAST OF, a festival in commemoration of the 'purification' of the Blessed Virgin Mary, in accordance with the ceremonial law of Lev. xii. 2. This ceremony was appointed for the fortieth day after childbirth, which, reckoning from December 25 (the Nativity of our Lord), falls upon February 2, on which day the purification is celebrated. The history of Mary's compliance with the law is related in Luke ii. 22-24; and as on the same occasion she complied also with the law of Numb. xviii. 15, by the offering prescribed in redemption of the first-born, the festival is also called by the name of the 'Presentation of the Child Jesus,' or the Feast of Simeon,' and sometimes, also, 'of the Meeting' (occursus), in allusion to Simeon's meeting the Virgin mother, and taking the child into his arms (Luke ii. 25). The date of the introduction of this festival is uncertain. The first clear trace of it is about the

middle of the 5th c., during the reign of Marcia, and in the church of Jerusalem. Its introduction in the Roman Church in 494 was made, by Pope Gelasius, the occasion of transferring to a Christian use the festivities which at that season were annexed to the pagan festival of the Lupercalia.

PU'RITANS, a name first given, according to Fuller, in 1564, and according to Strype, in 1569, to those clergymen of the Church of England who refused to conform to its liturgy, ceremonies, and discipline as arranged by Archbishop Parker and his Episcopal coadjutors. But in point of fact, the Puritan tendency in the Church of England is as old as the church itself; and to seek for its true origin we must go back to the period of Cranmer, who, when laying the foundations of English Protestantism in a nation only half-prepared for the change, found it necessary to make concessions to the older religion, and to build the new church on an elaborate system of compromise. This feature of Anglicanism'-its essential broad-churchism-gave great offence to the stricter and more doctrinal of the English reformers, who neither cared nor were competent to look at the thing from a statesman's point of view. The reign of Edward VI., brief though it was, shewed quite clearly that if the party in the English Church who had acquired not only their theology, but their opinions of churchgovernment from Calvin, ever got the upper hand, they would not stop till they had reconstructed, on a much simpler basis, the whole ecclesiastical fabric. The reaction under Mary drove most of them to seek safety in exile on the continent. It was here the first definite step in the history of Puritanism was taken. A number of the exiles resident at Frankfurt determined to adopt the Genevan service-book in preference to that appointed by King Edward, and though their attempt proved a failure, partly on account of the opposition of others of the exiles, yet it shewed the pertinacity with which they tried to carry their convictions into practice. On their return to England, after the accession of Elizabeth, the struggle was renewed. But the virile queen would not tolerate their notions, and during her whole reign, punished in the most stringent style all who refused to obey the Episcopal ordinances. The position assumed by the P. was that the liturgy, ceremonies, and discipline of the Church of England required further reformation; that the church, as then constituted, did not separate itself markedly enough from Roman Catholicism; and that it was desirable, in the interests of religion, to abandon everything that could boast of no other authority than tradition or the will of man, and to follow as far as possible the 'pure' word of God. Hence their name, which was probably given in derision. In spite of the sharpest repressive measures, their principles gradually spread among the serious portion of the laity, who were also called Puritans. But the name appears not to have been confined to those who wished for certain radical changes in the forms of the church. The character that generally accompanied this wish led naturally enough to a wider use of the term; hence, according to Sylvester, the vicious multitude of the ungodly called all Puritans that were strict and serious in a holy life, were they ever so conformable.' This is the sense in which the Elizabethan dramatists use the word. From this very breadth of usage, one sees that there were different degrees of Puritanism. Some would have been content with a moderate reform in the rites, discipline, and liturgy of the church; others (like Cartwright of Cambridge) wished to abolish Episcopacy altogether, and to substitute Presbyterianism; while a third party, the Brownists or Independents (q. v.),

PURL-PURPLE COLOURS.

upwards of 1,500,000 lbs. of cheese being annually sold in the market. In 1862, the number of ships which entered amounted to 138, having an aggregate burden of 36,235 tons, 7 belonging to the Netherlands, and 131 to foreign ports, 127 being timber-laden. The town, which sprung up under the protection of the castle of Purmerstein (built at the beginning of the 15th c.), derives its name from being situated at the end of the Purmer, formerly a sheet of water, by drainage made a fertile tract of land containing 6701 acres.

capital of an extensive and populous district of the PU'RNEAH, a large town of British India, same name in the presidency of Bengal, on the north bank of the Ganges, stands on both banks of the Little Kosi river, 230 miles north-north-west of Calcutta. It covers a considerable area, but it is not compactly built, there being numerous plantations, gardens, and other open places within the boundaries. Around the town are numerous straggling villages. A considerable quantity of indigo is grown in the vicinity. The civic establishment consists for the most part of Europeans. Pop. from 40,000 to 50,000.

were out-and-out dissenters, opposed alike to Presbyterianism and Episcopacy. During the reigns of James I. and Charles I., the spirit of Puritanism continued more and more to leaven English society and the English parliament, although the most violent efforts were made by both monarchs to extirpate it. The tyrannical proceedings of Laud and of the Laudian bishops, and the outrages practised by Charles on the English constitution, led many who were not at all Genevan in their ideas to oppose both church and king for the sake of the national liberties. Hume distinguishes three kinds of P.: 1. The Political P., who disliked the bishops, not so much on ecclesiastical grounds, as on account of their servility towards the king, and their priestly antipathy to civil liberty; 2. The P. in Church Discipline, who were for the most part in favour of Presbyterianism; 3. The Doctrinal P., who were strong Calvinists on such points as predestination, free-will, grace, &c., but were not opposed to Épiscopacy or to the ecclesiastical authority of the monarch, and who contented themselves with assailing the Arminianism that was encouraged at court. The attitude of this third class was certainly anomalous, and it is not wonderful that they exercised so little influence or control on the march of events in the great civil struggle. The second class was by far the most numerous at least among the clergy; and at first it seemed as if the clergy were going to have things all their own way. For example, in the memorable Westminster Assembly of Divines' (1643), the great majority of the ministers were Presbyterians, and their Confes sion of Faith is quite a Presbyterian affair. But genius, energy-the arms of victory-belonged to the more advanced P., who were predominant in the army and the parliament, and ultimately triumphed in the person of Cromwell (q. v.). But the Restoration (1660) brought back Episcopacy, and the Act of Uniformity (1662) threw the P. of the church into the position of dissenters. Their subsequent history is treated under the different forms of dissent. Before the civil war broke out, so great were the hardships to which the P. were exposed, that many of them emigrated to America, to seek liberty and peace on the solitary shores of the New World. There they became the founders of the New England States, and cultivated unmolested that form of Christianity to which they were attached. Nowhere did the spirit of Puritanism in its evil as well as its good more thoroughly express itself than in Massachusetts and Rhode Island; nor have its traces wholly disappeared even yet. In Scotland, Puritanism, in the shape of Presbyterianism, was from the first the established religion; hence it does not present itself to us in that country as a struggling, suffering, antagonistic, and protesting force; nor, in point of fact, was the name of P. ever given even to the extremest sect of Covenanters.-See Neale's History of the Puritans; Price's History of Protestant Nonconformity in Eng-was called dibapha, and was so excessively dear, that lund; and Macaulay's History of England.

PURL, a beverage now little used except among the lower classes in and around London. It is made by warming a pint of ale with a quarter of a pint of milk, and adding some sugar and a wine-glassful of gin, rum, or brandy.

PU'RLINS, pieces of timber used in framed roofs, between the principals, for the support of the common rafters.

PU'RMEREND, a flourishing little town in North Holland, 10 miles north of Amsterdam, and on the line of the great canal from that city to the North Sea. Pop. nearly 5000. It has a large trade in cheese, butter, eggs, cattle, and wood,

PURPLE OF CASSIUS, or GOLD PURPLE, a beautiful colouring material of a vitreous char acter, which was made known in Germany in the 17th c. by an artist named Andrew Cassius, whose father was secretary to the Duke of Schleswig. Its property is to give a beautiful ruby red to glass, and it was therefore, and still is, employed to make imitation rubies. It is made by combining one part of neutral chloride of gold with a mixture of one part of protochloride and two parts of perchloride of tin, all in solution. When mixed together, a beautiful purple precipitate is the result, which is the Purple of Cassius. The French recipe, which is said to be the best, is 10 parts of acid chloride of gold dissolved in 2000 parts of distilled water. To this add a solution, carefully prepared, in another vessel, of 10 parts of pure tin in 20 parts of muriatic the two, the purple precipitate is thrown down, and acid diluted with 1000 parts of water. On mixing is separated by filtering and decantation.

PURPLE COLOURS. Painters in oil and water colours produce the various shades of purple by the admixture of pure red and pure blue colours. Dyers obtain this colour from various sources, all of which are curious and interesting. From a very early period, purple has been one of the most highly prized of all colours, and came to be the symbol of imperial power. Probably one great reason for this was the enormous cost of the only purple colour known to the ancients, the Tyrian purple, which was obtained in minute quantities only from a Mediterranean species of molluscous animal or shell-fish, the Murex trunculus, and perhaps also Purpura lapillus. In the time of Cicero, wool double-dyed with this colour

a single pound-weight cost a thousand denarii, or about £35 sterling. A single murex only yields a small drop of the secretion, consequently very large numbers had to be taken in order to obtain enough to dye even a small amount of wool. Tarentum, the modern Otranto, was one of the great murex number of large dyeing establishments. Vast heaps fisheries of the Romans, and there they had a of the shells have been discovered there, the remains of its former industry. With the decline of the Roman empire, the employment of this purple colour ceased, and it was not until a Florentine of the name of Orchillini discovered the dyeing properties of the lichen now called Orchella Weed, that a simple purple colour was known in Europe.

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