ROLAND DE LA PLATIERE-ROLL

an embassy to the pagan king, Marsilius of Saragossa, of Pierre Gratien Phlipon, an engraver, and was born to receive the homage which he had pledged himself to perform. The mission was a dangerous one, as all other ambassadors to the king had been slain, and Ganelon, wishing to revenge himself on R., proved a traitor and betrayed to Marsilius the route which the Christian army were to take. The consequence was, that after Charlemagne had safely crossed the mountains with the main part of his forces, R., who commanded a rear-guard of 20,000 men, was surprised within the narrow valley of Roncevalles, by a terrible army of all the pagan nations of the world. R., who possessed an enchanted horn, which could have been heard far beyond the mountains, might have recalled his uncle, but despising such pusillanimity, he fought on till 100,000 Saracens lay slain around him and the 50 warriors who alone remained alive to aid him. Another army of 50,000 men of Carthage, Ethiopia, and Candia now pours down upon him. At length he blows his horn, which is heard by Charlemagne, who, however, does not return, as Ganelon persuades him once, twice, and thrice that R. is only hunting the deer; and not until the veins of R.'s neck have burst with the violence of the blast, does the emperor retrace his steps. In the meanwhile, R. has dragged his dying limbs to the foot of Mount Cisaire, above Roncevalles, where, after having sung his death-song, and thrown his trusty and enchanted sword Durandal into a poisoned stream, where it still remains, he dies exhausted from his many wounds. Charlemagne, who arrives too late to save him, avenges his death in a series of marvellous battles and bloody victories, whose delineation imparts a sufficiently dark colouring to the closing passages of this sombre epic.

ROLAND DE LA PLATIÈRE, JEAN MARIE, a French minister of the revolutionary period, was born at Mizy, near Villefranche (Beaujolais), 18th February 1734. His first independent appointment was that of inspector-ordinary at Amiens. In 1775, at the house of a friend in Amiens named Sophie Cannet, he met Marie Jeanne Phlipon, a young woman of brilliant genius and fascinating beauty, and after a courtship of four years, they were married, 4th February 1780. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, R., as well as his wife, became a decided partisan of the movement. In 1791, he was sent to Paris, by the municipality of Lyon, to represent to the Constituent Assembly the deplorable condition of the Lyonnese weavers. After the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, he founded at Lyon, the Club Central, the members of which, marked by their attachment to constitutional liberty, received the name of Rolandins. Towards the close of 1791, he fixed himself at Paris, and soon became one of the heads of the Girondist or moderate section of the Republicans. In March 1792, he was appointed Minister of the Interior, a situation which he held till January 1793, when he resigned it, despairing of seeing moderate counsels adopted. After placing his accounts in the hands of the Assembly, he asked permission to withdraw from Paris, but it was refused, and an illegal attempt was made to arrest him, which failed. Immediately after, he fled, and concealed himself in Rouen. When news reached him of the execution of his wife, he committed suicide at a small village in the environs of Rouen, 15th November 1793. R. wrote and published several memoirs and disquisitions on branches of industry, besides 6 vols. of Letters addressed to his wife before their marriage, from Switzerland, Italy, Sicily, and Malta.

ROLAND, MADAME (née MARIE JEANNE PHLIPON), wife of the preceding, was the daughter

Her

at Paris, 17th March 1754. The precocity of her
intelligence was remarkable. At the age of four,
she had quite a passion for reading; at seven, she
learned by heart a treatise on heraldry; at eight,
she used to carry Plutarch with her to church,
while the Jerusalem Delivered of Tasso, and the
Telemaque of Fenelon fired her childish imagination.
At the same time, an ardent piety began to develop
itself, and when only eleven, she entered the Maison
des Dames de la Congrégation, in the Faubourg Saint-
Marcel. Here she formed a close friendship with
two young girls from Amiens, Henriette and Sophie
Cannet, particularly with the latter, which was
fruitful in consequences. On her return to her
father's house after the lapse of two years,
change came o'er the spirit of her dream.' She no
longer cared for the so-called 'religious' writers-
the defenders of the Bible and the Church.
faith was slowly changing from the dogmatic creed
of Bossuet to the 'naturalism' of the Encyclopédists
and 'Philosophes.' In ethics, now as ever, her pre-
ference for the Stoical system was marked. Shortly
after the death of her mother in 1773, she read for
the first time La Nouvelle Heloise, which seemed
to her (as it has to many another young impas-
sioned soul) a veritable revelation. Greatly dis-
tressed by the imprudent conduct of her father, she
again withdrew, at the age of 25, to the Maison
des Dames de la Congrégation, and once more
attempted an 'austere' life; but M. Roland (q. v.),
who had already known her for five years, now
came forward, and rescued her from a career which
must ultimately have proved equally unsatisfactory
to her reason and conscience, by offering her his
hand. She was 25, and he 45. There was certainly
but then, Mademoiselle Phlipon knew that 'ideal'
something unpoetical in the disparity of their years,
matches were made only in heaven, and so she
accepted calmly the inspector of manufactures.
Their marriage was celebrated 4th February 1780.
It is unnecessary to follow the remainder of her
career, which was of course identical with her hus
band's until his flight from Paris 31st May 1793.
The same night, she was herself arrested, and
imprisoned in the Abbaye. A more dauntless and
intrepid spirit never entered its walls! Released
on the 24th of June, she was instantly rearrested
without the shadow of a tangible accusation, and
by the very commissaries who had set her at liberty,
confined in Saint-Pelagie. Madame R. spent the
period of her imprisonment in study, in the compo-
sition of her political Mémoires. Summoned before
the Revolutionary Tribunal in the beginning of
November, she was condemned, and on the 9th was
guillotined, amid the shoutings of an insensate mob.
It is said that while standing on the scaffold, she
asked for a pen and paper that she might write
down the strange thoughts that were passing through
her head.' Only a genuine child of the French
Republic could have been so ostentatiously specu-
lative at such a moment. Still more celebrated is
her apostrophe to the statue of Liberty, at the
foot of which the scaffold was erected: O Liberty,
what crimes are committed in thy name!' or,
according to another version: 'Liberty, how they
have played with thy
name!'-See La Correspon-
dance de Madame Roland
avec les Demoiselles Cannet

(2 vols., Paris, 1841);
Lettres Autographes de
Madame Roland, adressées
à Bancal des Issarts (Paris,
1835).

Roll Moulding.

ROLL, a round moulding much used in Gothic

ROLL OF ARMS-ROLLER.

architecture. It is also modified by the introduc- pigeon. It is an inhabitant of woods. It is a very tion of a fillet, and is then called the roll-and-filletmoulding.

ROLL OF ARMS, a heraldic record of arms, either verbally blazoned or illuminated, or both, on a long strip of vellum, rolled up, instead of being folded into leaves. Rolls of arms are the most important and most authentic materials for the history of early heraldry. In England, they go back to the reign of Henry III., the oldest being a copy of a roll of that reign, containing a list of the arms borne by the sovereign, the princes of the blood, and the principal barons and knights between 1216 and 1272, verbally blazoned without drawings. The original has been lost, but the copy, which, having been made by Glover, Somerset herald, in 1586, called Glover's Roll,' is in the English College of Arms. This roll exhibits heraldry as at that early period already consolidated into a system. In the British Museum (Harl. Coll., 6589) is a copy of another roll of the middle of the 13th c., containing 700 coats tricked, that is, drawn in pen and ink. The Roll of Caerlaverock is a heraldic poem in Norman-French, reciting the names and arms of the knights present at the siege of Caerlaverock in 1300. It has been published with notes by Sir N. H. Nicolas. Copies exist of rolls of the knights who were with Edward I. at the battle of Falkirk.

shy bird, and the sportsman always finds it difficult to approach. In the countries where it is abundant, as in some islands of the Mediterranean, it is in high esteem for the table.

ROLLER, an agricultural implement which has been long in use, consisting of a cylinder of wood, stone, or iron, placed in a frame, so as to revolve like a wheel, and drawn over the land by a horse. The weight of the roller is greater or less according to the purpose for which it is intended: the breaking of stiff clay clods, the consolidating of very light soils after frost, the hardening of the surface of the ground to check evaporation, the levelling of an uneven surface before harvest operations, &c. For these and such purposes, the roller is in constant use. The introduction of hollow cylinders of iron, instead of solid ones of wood or stone, is an improvement of no remote date, and was the first change on the old simple implement, which was afterwards further modified by dividing the cylinder into two parts, to give greater facility in turning, and to diminish its injurious action in scraping the soil before it while turning; and this process of division being carried further, with other modifications, giving each part or wheel a more independent action, and breaking up the uniformity of surface by giving a raised wedge-like ROLLER (Coracias), a genus of birds very gener-edge to the circumference of each wheel, the result ally referred to the Crow family (Corvida), but by is a clod-crusher. many naturalists to the Bee-eater family (Meropida), with which they regard the habits and colours of the species as indicating a closer alliance. The bill is moderately large, compressed towards the point, straight, the upper mandible curved downwards at the point, the sides bristled at the base, the gape wide; the legs short and strong; the wings long. The colours are in general very brilliant. Mr Swainson says of the BLUE-BODIED R. (C. cyanogaster) of Western Africa, that no effort of art can possibly do justice to those inimitably rich lines of ultramarine, beryl colour, and changeable fawn, with which it is ornamented; for there are no tints hitherto

In

The

ROLLER, used as part of the inking apparatus in letter-press printing, is of modern invention. the old process of applying the ink to the surface of types, stuffed leather balls were made use of, which were not only difficult to keep in proper order, but were inapplicable to cylinder-printing. first improvement on the stuffed balls consisted in covering them with a soft and elastic composition, such as was employed in the Staffordshire potteries. Catching at this idea, the inventors of cylinder printing-machines made rollers by coating longitudinal and rounded pieces of wood with the composition, by means of casting in a mould. invention came generally into use between 1814 aud 1818, everywhere superseding balls, and rendering printing machinery practicable.

This

The method of making inking-rollers is very simple. A roller may be of any length, to suit work of different kinds; for hand-presses it is usually about 30 inches long, but longer for machines, according to their dimensions. The thickness is about 3 inches, of which the composition on the wood is probably three-quarters of an inch all round. The wooden centre being fixed upright in an iron mould, the composition is poured in when in a hot liquid state, and then left to cool. When cold, the mould, which is in halves, finelyjointed and held together, is opened, and the roller taken out: by a little trimming, it is ready for use. The composition consists of a due propordiscovered, either mineral or vegetable, which will tion of fine glue and treacle or molasses, boiled enable the painter to produce their successful imita- together, and thoroughly blended--the result being tion.' The species are pretty numerous, all natives a substance resembling soft india-rubber. The proof the Old World, and mostly of the warmer parts portions of the two ingredients depend on the state of it. One only is found in Europe, the COMMON R. of the atmosphere. In summer, one pound of glue (C. garrula), a bird nearly equal in size to a jay; to one pound of treacle may form a suitable mixwith head, neck, and wing-coverts greenish-blue, ture; but in winter, it may be requisite to give three other shades of blue strongly marked in the wings. pounds of treacle to one pound of glue, in order to This bird is abundant in the north of Africa, and in insure the proper elasticity. Rollers, in time, Home parts of Asia; it is partially migratory, and shrivel and waste by use, and the composition may is rare in Britain. It tosses its food, which consists then be remelted, along with some small addition or of insects or parts of plants, into the air before eating new materials. In all cases, the rollers require to it, swallowing it when it falls in a proper direction be kept very clean, and suspended in a rack when for entering the throat. The name R. is derived not in use. The manufacture and supply of rollers from its habit of tumbling in the air like a tumbler- for printers constitute a distinct business in London;

ROLLIN-ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.

but elsewhere, as far as we know, every printing establishment of any consequence possesses means of fabricating rollers for itself.

he preached 'evangelical' and Calvinistic doctrines in an age of religious apathy, was the son of a corndealer in Hartlepool, and was born there, September His father was a French Protestant 25, 1714.

Two

ROLLIN, CHARLES, a French historian, who formerly enjoyed, if he did not merit, an extensive refugee. Young R. was educated at the grammarpopularity, was the son of a cutler, and was born in school of Houghton. He was ordained a priest in Paris, January 30, 1661. He studied at the College 1738, and immediately obtained a curacy near du Plessis, where, in 1683, he became assistant to the Epsom. In 1739, he published a sermon preached Professor of Rhetoric, and four years later obtained before the university of Oxford, in which he the chair for himself. In 1688, he was called to the chair of Eloquence at the College Royal de France, and for some ten years he discharged the duties of his office with remarkable zeal and success, In 1694, he was chosen rector of the university of Paris, a dignity which he held for two years, and signalised his brief tenure of office by many useful reforms, both in regard to discipline and study, and by his warm defence of the privileges of the university. His efforts to revive the study of Greek, then falling back into neglect, were particularly creditable to him, and altogether his career as rector constitutes perhaps his best claim to the regard of posterity, and has certainly left a more permanent impression than his writings, for its influence is perceptible even to the present day. In 1699, he was appointed coadjutor to the principal of the College of Beauvais; but was removed from this situation in 1712, through the machinations of the Jesuits, for R. was a strenuous Jansenist. For the next three years he devoted himself exclusively to learned study, the fruit of which was his edition of Quintilian (Paris, 2 vols. 1715). In 1720, he was re-elected rector of the university and in 1726 published his Traité des Etudes, which M. Villemain has pronounced a monument of good sense and taste,' and which is justly regarded as his best literary performance, for his Histoire Ancienne (Paris, 12 vols. 1730-1738), though long prodigiously popular, and translated into several languages (the English among others), is feeble in its philosophy, jejune in its criticism, and often inaccurate in its narrative. Nevertheless, to multitudes, both in this country and in France, it has formed the introduction to the study of ancient history. Frederick the Great, then the Prince-royal, of Prussia, among other princely notabilities, wrote to compliment the author, and opened up a correspondence with him. In 1738, R. published his Histoire Romaine (Paris, 9 vols.), a much inferior work, now almost forgotten. He died September

14, 1741.

ROLLING MILL, one of the most important of modern inventions for the working of metals. It was first introduced practically by Mr Corb in 1784, and since then has gradually become more and more useful, as its capabilities have been developed. Under the article IRON (q. v.), there is a figure of the iron rolling-mill, by means of which bars of iron are rolled or drawn out, and it will be at once seen that the same machine will do for other metals; moreover, the rolls may be engraved so as to impress a pattern on the bar as it passes through; this is done by the brass-workers to a great extent; and tubes of brass, copper, tin, &c., are also operated on in a similar way, a mandrel or rod of iron being fitted inside the tube, to sustain the pressure of the

rollers.

ROLLS, MASTER OF. See MASTER OF THE ROLLS.

ROLLS OF COURT, in Scotch Law, mean the lists of causes depending in the Court of Session. ROMAGNA. See PAPAL STATES. ROMAINE, REV. WILLIAM, an English divine of the last century, noted for the ardour with which

attempted to shew, in opposition to the view maintained by Warburton in his Divine Legation of Moses, that the doctrine of a future state is 'expressly mentioned,' and even insisted on,' in the Pentateuch. This led to a controversy with Warbur ton. In 1747, he published the first volume of a new edition of Calasio's Hebrew Concordance and Lexicon, the fruit of seven years' labour. The only thing in connection with R.'s edition that now calls for notice is the fact, that he took extraordinary liberties with the original, omitting, for example, the author's account of the word which is usually rendered 'God,' and substituting his own in the body of the work! In 1748, he was chosen lecturer of St Botolph's, in London, and, in the following year, lecturer of St Dunstan's-in-the West. years later, he was appointed assistant morningpreacher at St George's; but was afterwards deprived of the situation by the rector, Dr Trebeck, who was jealous of his popularity, and averse to the 'plainness' of his preaching. His evangelicalism' grew with his years; and at length, in 1757, in a sermon on The Lord Our Righteousness, it became so offensive to the torpid dons of Oxford that the university pulpit was in future closed against him. Some years before this, R. had been appointed to the professorship of astronomy in Gresham College, for which he was not fit, and which he did not its character, as will readily be understood when we retain. His intellect was anything but scientific in state that he allowed his zeal' for Hutchinsonian speculations to lead him into opposition to the Newtonian philosophy. In 1756, he became curate and morning-preacher at St Olave's, Southwark, a situation which he exchanged in the course of a year for a preachership at St Bartholomew the Great, the parishioners rector of St Andrew, Wardrobe, and near West Smithfield. In 1766, he was chosen by St Anne, Blackfriars, an office which he held till his death, July 26, 1795. already mentioned, R. published Twelve Sermons upon Solomon's Song (1759); Twelve Discourses upon the Law and the Gospel (1760); The Life of Faith (1763); The Scripture Doctrine of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper (1765); The Walk of Faith (1771); An Essay on Psalmody (1775); The Triumph of Faith (1795). His works were republished in a collected form, in 8 vols., in 1796, by the Hon. and Rev. W. B. Cadogan, who prefaced them with a life of their author.

Besides what has been

ROMAN ALUM. See ROCH ALUM.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Of the early architecture of Rome and the other Latin cities, comparatively little is known. With the conquest of Carthage, Greece, and Egypt, the Romans becaine acquainted with the arts of those countries, and began to endeavour to use them for the embellishment of the imperial city. Besides, Rome under the empire was the capital of the world, and attracted artists from every country. The result was that the architecture of Rome became a mixed style. It was all imported, and partook of the character of the importers. The great interest of Roman architecture is, that it is a mixture and amalgamation of all ancient styles, and the starting-point for all modern styles. It is thus the

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.

connecting link between ancient and modern art; entablature, and gradually the pier was omitted, the whole history of Roman architecture being and the arch openly thrown from pillar to pillar, that of a transition, slow but steady, from the the architrave bent round it, and the cornice external architecture of the Greeks to the internal continued horizontally above. architecture of the Christians. Rome borrowed from Greece the oblong peristylar temple, with its horizontal construction and decoration, and the various orders.' See COLUMN, GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. From the Tuscans, probably, were derived the circular form of temple and the circular arch, which became leading features in the development of the future Roman style.

The Orders imported from Greece were the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (q. v.). These were all used in Rome, but with some modifications; the Doric, for example, being never used as in Greece, but without fluting, and with the capital and entablature altered, and a base added, so as to make the style more similar to the others, with which it was often associated. The Ionic had the volutes turned out angularwise, so as to present a similar face in each direction. The favourite 'order' of the Romans, however, was the Corinthian. It was invented in Greece, but more fully developed in Rome, where it suited the desire which existed for richness and luxuriance in architecture. Many fine examples of

Fig. 2.-Courtyard at Spalatro.
(From Sir Gardner Wilkinson's Dalmatia.)

The buildings executed by the Romans are very varied in their character, but the same style was used for temples, baths, amphitheatres, triumphal arches, tombs, &c. The earliest temples of which remains now exist are those of Jupiter Stator in the Forum, Jupiter Tonans, and Mars Ultor, all of the Augustan epoch, and each with only three columns left. These are supposed to have been nearly peripteral, and it is worthy of notice that the cells are all large, and one of them has an apse.

One of the most interesting temples of Rome is the Pantheon. The portico is of the age of Augustus, but the rotunda is probably considerably later. The dome of the interior is a splendid example of the progress of Roman architecture in developing the use of the arch, and transferring the decoration from the exterior to the interior. The former is in this case totally sacrificed to the latter; but the interior has not yet been surpassed for boldness of construction or simplicity and sublimity of effect. Other examples of circular temples, on a small scale, are found at Tivoli and in Rome, both dedicated to Vesta. The greatest works of the Romans, however, were this style exist in Rome (as the Pantheon, Jupiter not their temples. The Basilicas (q. v.), Amphi Stator, &c.), and in the provinces (as the Maison theatres (q. v.) and Baths (q. v.) are far more Quarrée at Nimes, Baalbec, &c.), the capitals, numerous and more stupendous as works of art, and wherever found, being designed in endless

an

variety. The composite order was invention of the Romans, and is sometimes called the Roman order. It is a combination of the Ionic and Corinthian. All these orders were used by the Romans, but in a manner peculiar to themselves; they combined with the Greek orders the arch. They placed the columns (fig. 1) at wide intervals, and set them on pedestals, to give them and the entablature a proper proportion; whilst behind the columns they placed square piers, and from them threw arches which supported the wall. This was the favourite Roman style, and may be seen in all their important works (amphitheatres, arches, baths, &c.). They piled one order above another, marking each story with the entablature. As the style proceeded, vaulting and arching all shew how well the Romans had succeeded in became more common, especially in internal con- producing an internal architecture, which at a later struction, but the horizontal ornamentation was period became so useful as a model for Christian never entirely abandoned. Arches of this construc- buildings. The Basilica of Trajan is a type of tion were thrown from pillar to pillar behind the the Christian wooden-roofed churches; while that

1

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE-ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

of Maxentius (fig. 3), with its great intersecting instance, the tombs of St Helena and Sta Costanza. vaults, its vaulted aisles, and buttresses, contains Mr Fergusson also places the so-called 'Temple of the germs of the greatest Christian cathedrals. The Minerva Medica' (fig. 5) amongst the tombs. It is a Roman Amphitheatres (q. v.) have never been sur- beautifully arranged building with ten sides, all passed for size and grandeur, or for suitability to containing deep niches (except the side with the their purpose. And of the Baths (q. v.), sufficient door), surmounted by a clear-story, with ten wellremains still exist, although much decayed, from the proportioned windows. The vault is polygonal perishable nature of the brick and stucco employed inside and outside; and the pendentives, ribs, butin their construction, to prove that the scarcely cred- tresses, &c., which played so important a part in ible descriptions of contemporaries were surpassed the Christian architecture both of the East and by the magnificence of the buildings themselves. West, are distinctly used in its construction.

Among the other varied public works of the Romans are their Aqueducts (q. v.) and bridges, Triumphal Arches (q. v.), pillars of victory, and tombs. Of the tombs of the Romans, the earliest and best specimen is that of Cæcilia Metella (wife of Crassus), on the Appian Way (fig. 4). It consists

Fig. 4. Tomb of Cæcilia Metella.
(From Fergusson's Hand-book.

(like most Roman tombs) of a round drum placed on a square basement, and was probably surmounted by a conical roof. The tomb of Augustus was similar, on a very large scale, and the sloping roof was broken into terraces planted with trees. That of Adrian (now the castle of St Angelo in Rome) is another enormous example. The tombs were generally ranged along the ways leading to the gates of cities.

The later tombs of Rome are well worthy of study, as they contain many specimens of the

Fig. 5.-Plan of the Temple of Minerva Medica at Rome. transition towards the Christian style. They are generally vaulted, frequently with domes, as, for

Of the domestic architecture of the Romans, we have many wonderfully preserved specimens in Herculaneum and Pompeii, shewing both the arrangements and decorations of the dwellings of all classes. Of the great palaces and villas, however, none remain except the palace of Diocletian, at Spalatro, in Dalmatia. It is an important building, as it shews many steps in the progress of the style.

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, the com munity of Christians throughout the world who recognise the spiritual supremacy of the Pope or Bishop of Rome, and are united together by the profession of the same faith, and the participation of the same sacraments. The subject will be most conveniently treated by considering under separate heads the history of this great Christian community; its doctrinal and disciplinary system; and finally, its organisation and constitutional forms.

Although a few other points of doctrinal difference separate the creed of the Roman Church from that of the Greek, Russian, and oriental communions, yet it may truly be said that the most striking and palpable ground of division between Rome on the one side, and all the rest of the communions named above upon the other, lies in the claim of supremacy in spiritual jurisdiction on the part of the Roman bishop. This history of the Roman Church, therefore, in relation to the ancient oriental churches, is, in fact, the history of the claim to supremacy. Without entering into the merits of the question, we shall merely indicate in a brief outline the history and the nature of the claim as it is held in the Roman Catholic communion. In the minds of Roman Catholics, the claim of supremacy on the part of the Bishop of Rome rests on the belief, that Christ conferred on Peter a 'primacy of jurisdiction' over his church; that Peter fixed his see at Rome, and died bishop of that church (a position which some Protestant historians have called into question altogether); and thus, that the bishops of Rome, as successors of Peter, have also succeeded to his prerogatives of supremacy. In this light, Catholic historians read the facts of the early history of the church—and they trace to this acknowledged supe riority of the see of Peter numerous references to Rome on matters of doctrine or discipline; appeals from other churches, even from the great churches of Alexandria, Antioch, and Constan tinople; depositions or nominations of bishops, examination and condemnation of heresies, of which the first five centuries, especially the 4th and 5th, present examples, but in which Protestant historians only recognise the natural result of the political and social superiority of Rome as the capital of the Roman empire. The letters of Pope Leo the Great, in the commencement of the 5th c., shew beyond question that the bishops of Rome, from whatever cause, claimed to speak and act with authority in the affairs of the church; and the first direct challenge to this claim was made by the patriarch of Constantinople, in the person of Acacius, and led to a schism of many years, which, however, terminated in the humiliation of the younger see It was a powerful argument for the claims of Rome, that in all the controversies upon the Incarnation