RUFFE-RUHNKEN.

slender, as long as the head. The neck of the male is surrounded, in the breeding season, with a ruff of numerous long feathers, whence probably the English name. The males are remarkable for diversity of colours, no two specimens being ever similar; but ash-brown prevails, spotted or mottled with black: the head, ruff, and shoulders are black, glossed with purple, and variously barred with chestnut. The female (the Reeve) is mostly ashbrown, with spots of dark-brown, much more uniform in colour than the male. Their nest is usually situated on a tussock in a moist, swampy place, and is formed of the coarse grass which surrounds it. The eggs are four in number. The R. is taken for the table in spring, but the young birds taken in autumn are very preferable. They are often fattened after being taken, and are fed on bread and milk with bruised hemp-seed. After being fattened, they are sent to market. They feed readily when quite newly caught, and fight desperately for their food, unless supplied in separate dishes, which is therefore the regular practice of the feeders, who find it also advantageous to keep them in darkened apartments. The R. is gradually becoming scarcer in England, owing to the destruction of its favourite haunts, the fens, by drainage.

RUFFE, or POPE (Acerina cernua), a very pretty little fish of the Perch family (Percida), abundant in the lakes, slow rivers, and ditches of many parts of the middle of Europe and of

Ruffe or Pope (Acerina cernua).

England. It is not found in Scotland. It is never more than five or six inches long. In shape, it resembles the common perch, but has only a single dorsal fin. The R. is highly esteemed for the table. It is very easily caught, a small red worm being

used as bait.

other games. The railways and the school give rise to almost all the trade of the town. Pop. (1861) 7818. RU'GELEY, a market-town in the county of Stafford, on the right bank of the Trent. There are iron-works in the town, and collieries in the vicinity. Pop. (1861) 4362.

The island

sea,

that

RÜ'GEN, the largest of the islands of Germany, belongs to Prussia, and lies in the Baltic, off the Greatest length, 33 miles; coast of Pomerania. greatest breadth, 28 miles; area, 423 sq. miles. Pop. 46,746. It is separated from the mainland, with which at one time it was probably connected, by a strait, about a mile in width. is so deeply indented on all sides by the it seems to be formed of several narrow tongues of land attached to each other, and to which the name of peninsulas has been given. On the peninsula of Jasmund is the precipitous cliff called the Stubbenkammer, the highest point of which (420 feet) is called the King's Seat, because Charles XII. witnessed from this spot a sea-fight between the Swedes and Danes, August 8, 1715. peak, a flight of 600 steps, cut in the rock, leads to believed to be the place where, according to Tacitus, the beach below. In the vicinity is Hertha Lake, the goddess Hertha (Earth) was worshipped. The soil of the island is productive, cattle are reared, and the fisheries around the island are carried on with profit. The scenery of R., which is everywhere pleasing, and is frequently grotesque and romantic, together with the facilities for sea-bathing, attract numerous visitors. Chief town, Bergen, in the middle of the island, with 3536 inhabitants.

From this

RUHNKEN, DAVID, born 2d January 1723 at Stolpe, in Pomerania, received his academical education first at the Königsberg gymnasium, where he distinguished himself not only in classical learning, but even in music and drawing, and afterwards at Wittenberg University, where he spent two years in the assiduous study of ancient literature, history, and jurisprudence. He graduated 1743; after which he went to Leyden, where for six years he prosecuted his classical studies under the guidance of Hemsterhuis, and bestowed particular attention on the Greek writers, nearly all of whom he read. He devised a new edition of Plato, collected the scholia of that author, and published an excellent edition of Timæus's Lexicon Vocum Platonicarum (Leyd. 1754; re-edited in a much improved form, 1789). He went in 1755 to Paris, where, for a whole year, he examined the MSS. of the Royal Library and of the Library of St Germain. Hemsterhuis then got him appointed as lector (reader) in the university of Leyden, in which capacity he was the assistant and colleague of his great master. In October 1757, he introRU'GBY, a market-town of England, in the duced his series of lectures by a discourse, De Græcia county of Warwick, and 15 miles north-east of Artium et Doctrinarum Inventrice (Leyd. 1757). For the town of that name, is pleasantly situated on a four years he discharged the duties of his office with rising ground on the left bank of the Avon, and is a skill and success that raised him in public esteem, reached by five different railways. It derives its as one of the most learned men in Holland. importance and celebrity wholly from its grammar-1761, he succeeded Oudendorp in the chair of Eic school, founded by Lawrence Sheriff, a London shopkeeper, in 1567. The buildings of the school, consisting of a fine Elizabethan quadrangle, with cloisters, and an elegant detached chapel, are of brick, with stone-work round the windows and at the angles and cornices. The chapel contains among other monuments of head-masters, that of the late Dr Arnold. In 1865, the school was attended by 500 pupils. The endowment of the school produces about £5000 a year, and it offers 20 exhibitions of values varying from £40 to £80 a year, and tenable for four years. A park of eleven acres is set aside for foot-ball, cricket, and

RUFFLE is a low vibrating sound, less loud than a roll, produced by drummers. It is used as a compliment to general officers and at military funerals.

quence and History. In 1767, he lost his friend and master Hemsterhuis; and in his capacity as rector of the university, delivered a splendid tribute to the deceased in his Elogium Tiberii Hemsterhusii (Leyd. 1768). In 1774, he succeeded Gronovius as librarian to the university, which he enriched with a multitude of valuable books and MSS. He died 14th May 1798, and in gratitude to his memory, the city of Leyden purchased his great library, and gave his widow an annuity of 500 florins.

R. will long be remembered as one of the best scholars and critics of the 18th century. His fine taste and sagacity, aided by an astonishing memory

RUHR-RULE OF THE OCTAVE.

RULE OF THREE-RUMINANTIA.

RULE OF THREE is the technical term for that rule in arithmetic, otherwise called Proportion (q. v.), which teaches the finding of a fourth number proportional to three given numbers. The term rule of three' has been in use from the commencement of the 16th c.; and from the great utility of the operation in commercial transactions, it received, almost from the commencement, the name of the GOLDEN RULE (q. v.). To the ordinary rule of three' was added the backer rule, or 'rule of three inverse' (corresponding to inverse or Reciprocal [q. v.] proportion), and the 'double rule of three,' in which two or more ratios are given as determining the number to be found.

RUM, a mountainous island of Argyleshire, belongs to the group of the Inner Hebrides, 15 miles north-north-west of Ardnamurchan Point. It is 8 miles long, about 7 miles broad; area upwards of 30,000 acres, only about 6 per cent. of which is under cultivation. Pop. (1851) 162; (1861) 73. The island is a mass of high sharppeaked mountains, rising in Ben More to the height

of 2320 feet.

Before fer

as bearer of dispatches. In London, he so won the favour of the government by his intelligence, as to be appointed Under-secretary of State in the Colonial Office. On a change of ministry, however, he returned to America, and fought in the royal cause. When it failed, he entered the service of the king of Bavaria, by whom he was knighted; and in 1784, he was settled at Munich as aide-de-camp and chamberlain to the reigning sovereign. In this post he exhibited the energy of his mind and the fertility of his invention. He reorganised the army and improved its tactics. In 1790, he suppressed beggary throughout the kingdom, took measures for improving the breeds of horses and cattle, and laid out a park for Munich. He rapidly rose to the offices of major-general, councillor of state, lieutenant-general, minister of war, and was created Count of the Holy Roman Empire, when he chose Rumford, where his fortunes had begun, as his titular designation. In 1795, he visited London, where he was treated with much attention, and finding that his opinion was sought after on technological subjects, he published the results of his RUM, a kind of spirit made by fermenting and experience and the records of his labours in Bavaria. distilling the 'sweets' that accrue in making sugar of heat, he was the first to demonstrate the now Having long and carefully studied the phenomena from cane-juice. The scummings from the sugarpans give the best rum that any particular planta- accepted proposition that it is but a mode of motion. tion can produce; scummings and molasses, the (See E. L. Youmans, in The Correlation and Connext quality; and molasses the lowest. servation of Forces.) He also discovered the princimentation water is added, till the 'sett' or wort is ples upon which fireplaces and chimneys have since been constructed. The improvement of cookingof the strength of about 12 per cent. of sugar; and every ten gallons yields one gallon of rum, or rather ranges, stoves, &c. also engaged much of his attention. On his return to Bavaria, he was 'appointed The flavour of rum depends mainly on soil and climate, and is not good where canes grow Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of St James; President of the Council of Regency, and soon after, rankly. Pine apples and guavas are at times thrown into the still, but on the great scale, no attempt is but the British government, holding to the doctrine made to influence flavour artificially. The finest-of inalienable allegiance, refused to recognise him in flavoured rums are produced by the old-fashioned that capacity. Declining an invitation to America, small stills. The modern stills, which produce a he finally settled in Paris; devoted himself to imstrong spirit at one operation, are unfavourable to provements in artillery and illumination; founded a flavour. The colour of rum is imparted after dis- professorship, in Harvard College, of the Application tillation by adding a certain proportion (varying of Science to the Arts of Living; married the widow with the varying taste of the market) of caramel, or of Lavoisier; and died at Auteuil, near Paris, August sugar melted without water, and thus slightly 21, 1814, after making many important bequests to charred. Rum is greatly improved by age, and old the Royal Society of London, the American Academy rum is often very highly prized; at a sale in Carlisle of Sciences, and Harvard University. See Memoirs in 1865, rum known to be 140 years old sold for of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, &c., three guineas per bottle. It forms a very important by George E. Ellis, Philadelphia, 1871; The Works part of British colonial produce: the quantity im- of Count Rumford, Philadelphia, 1871. ported in 1867 was no less than 6,845,502 gallons, of which 4,316,058 gallons were retained for consumption. It is distilled both in the East and West Indies. RUMA, a small town of Austria, in the crownland of the Temeser Banat and Servian Wojwodschaft, on an affluent of the Save, 35 miles west of Belgrade. The chief industry is wine-culture, and the rearing of horses. Pop. 7800.

more.

RU'MILI. See TURKEY,

RUMINA'NTIA, in the zoological system of Cuvier, and of almost all recent naturalists, the by Linnæus, an extremely well defined natural name given to an order of Mammalia called Pecora north-order, among the individuals of which the habit Linnæus, an extremely well defined natural of rumination or chewing the cud is universal and almost peculiar. The R. are all strictly and exclusively herbivorous, and exhibit a great similarity of structure. They have no incisors in the upper jaw, the front of which is occupied by a callous pad 'The grass is collected and rolled together by means of the long and movable tongue; it is firmly held between the lower cutting teeth and the pad, the cartilaginous upper lip assisting in this; and then, by a sudden nodding motion of the head, the little roll of herbage is either torn or cut off, or partly both torn and cut.'-Youatt. In the lower jaw, there generally appear to be eight incisors; but the two outer are more properly to be regarded as canines, and in the Camelide, they assume the ordinary canine form. Some of the R. have canine teeth in the upper jaw, and some are destitute of them. In front of the molar teeth, there is a long vacant space in both jaws. The molars are six on each side in each jaw; their surface exhibits

RUMFORD, BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT, an American inventor, was born at Woburn, Massachusetts, March 26, 1753. Having received the rudiments of education at a common school, he entered a merchant's office at Salem, at the age of 13, and got his living as a clerk and school teacher, while he studied medicine and physics. In 1770, he was engaged as teacher of an academy at Rumford, now Concord, the capital of New Hampshire; and in 1772, married a rich widow of that place, and was made major of militia by the English governor. The jealousy of officers over whom he had been promoted, and charges of disaffection to the royal cause, at this period of the outbreak of the American revolution, drove him from Rumford to Boston, where he became acquainted with General Howe; and when General Washington compelled the surrender of Boston, Thompson was sent to England

306

RUMINANTIA-RUMP PARLIAMENT.

crescent-shaped ridges of enamel. The head is elongated, the neck is always of considerable length, the eyes are placed at the side of the head, and the senses of smell and hearing, as well as of sight, are extremely acute. The head is in many R. armed with horns, which in some are found in both sexes, in some only in the male, whilst in others they are wholly wanting; and the absence of them characterises varieties of some species, as the sheep and ox, in which they are ordinarily present. The horns differ very much in different families, even in their structure, some being hollow (true horns), some solid (antlers). All the four limbs are terminated by two large toes, which are hoofed. Behind the hoof are always two small spurs, rudimentary toes. The metacarpal and the metatarsal bones are united into one, called the cannon bone. The legs are rather long, and the spinal column is very flexible. The brain of the R. is small, and they do not exhibit much intelligence; nor are they distinguished by any remarkable instincts; and though easily tamed, they are scarcely susceptible of any kind of training or education. Very few, however, of the numerous species of R. have been truly domesticated, and probably much is yet to be done in this way.

The R. are generally gregarious; they are distributed over almost the whole world; but none are natives of Australia. They are found both in the warmest and the coldest regions. The flesh of all the R. is fit to be used for human food; the fat (tallow) hardens more on cooling than the fat of other animals, and even becomes brittle. The fat, hide, horns, hoofs, hair, bones, entrails, blood, and almost all parts are useful to man.

The intestines are long in all the Ruminantia. The cacum is also long. The complex stomach, alapted to rumination, requires a more particular description. The stomach consists of four distinct bags or cavities. The first of these, into which the gullet or œsophagus enters, is, in the mature animal, by far the largest, and is called the Paunch (Lat. rumen). Into this the chief part of the food passes. It is lined with a thick membrane, presenting numerous prominent hard papillæ, secreting a fluid in which the food is soaked. The second cavity is the Honeycomb Bag (Lat. reticulum), so called from its being internally covered with a net-work of cells, like those of a honeycomb. In Scotland, it is known as the King's Hood. This second cavity, or stomach, has also a direct communication with the oesophagus, and fluids seem in general to pass immediately into it, but sometimes or partly also into the other cavities; and it is here that the cells for retaining water are chiefly found in the camel. The third cavity, or stomach, is the Manyplies (Lat. psalterium), so called because its lining membrane forms many deep folds, like the leaves of a book, beset with small hard tubercles. This also communicates directly with the oesophagus, by a sort of prolongation of it. The leaves of the membrane seem to serve for the absorption of superfluous fluid from the food. Finally, the food passes into the fourth cavity, which is of a more elongated form than any of the others, and is next in size to the first. This is called the Reed or Rennet (Lat. abomasus). It may be considered as the true stomach, homologous -if any one of the four parts can be so regarded to the simple stomach of mammals in general. It is lined with a velvety mucous membrane in longitudinal folds. It is here that the gastric juice is secreted. In young animals, it is the largest of the four cavities, and it is only when they pass from milk to crude vegetable food that the paunch becomes enlarged, and all the parts of the complex stomach come fully into use. It seems to be by

a power of what may be called instinctive volition.
that the animal directs what passes through the
gullet into the first cavity, the second, or even the
third. It has been found by M. Flourens, who
made many experiments on this subject, that the
food consumed by ruminants passed chiefly into
the first cavity, but part of it also at once into the
second, and even, when it was given in a mashed
or in a much comminuted state, into the third.
The particular means by which hastily swallowed
food is brought from the paunch, formed into pellets
at the base of the oesophagus, and brought up into
the mouth for rumination, or second and more
thorough mastication, are not yet very thoroughly
understood, notwithstanding the patient investiga-
tions of M. Flourens. He ascribes the formation
of the pellets, however, to the action of the muscular
duct which connects the oesophagus with the second
and third stomachs, and the power which the animal
has of closing or opening at will the orifices of these
cavities.

Chewing of the cud is very generally performed in an attitude of repose, and evidently affords great pleasure to the animal.

The R. are arranged by naturalists in seven families, all very natural-Camelida (see Camel), Moschide (see MUSK), Cervidae (see DEER), Camelo pardida (see GIRAFFE), Antelopidae (see ANTELOPE), Bovida (q. v.), and Caprida (q. v.). The most | important genera and species are separately noticed. RUMP PARLIAMENT. In order to bring about the condemnation of Charles I., Oliver Cromwell, on 6th December 1648, sent two regiments, under the command of Colonel Pride, to coerce the House of Commons. Forty-one members of the Long Parliament who were favourable to accommodation were imprisoned in a lower room of the house, 160 were ordered to go home, and only 60 of the most violent of the Independents were admitted. The clearance was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged members ever afterwards passed by the name of the Rump, forming, as it were, the fag-end of the Long Parliament. This assembly, in conjunction with the army, brought about the arraignment, trial, and condemnation of Charles I. Five years later, the Rump Parliament, forgetting that it was but the creature of the army, attempted to make a stand against certain demands on the part of the soldiers. The result was that Cromwell filled the House with armed men; the Speaker was pulled out of the chair, the mace taken from the table, the room cleared, the door locked, and the parliament declared to be dissolved. Supreme in the three kingdoms, Cromwell convoked an assembly which assumed the title of Parliament, and acquired from the name of one of its most prominent members, a leather-seller, called Praisegod Barebones, the name of the Barebones Parliament. The Barebones Parliament, after subsisting five months, was dissolved, and Cromwell, raised to the dignity of Protector, convoked two parliaments, and dissolved them for refusing to sanction his measures. On Oliver Cromwell's death, and Richard's succession to the Protectorate, the military malcontents coalescing with the Independents in Richard's parliament, declared the expulsion of the Rump illegal, and restored that assembly to its functions. With the revival of the Rump, its quarrel with the army revived; and the troops, again surrounding Westminster Hall, expelled it on 13th October 1659, a provisional government of officers assuming the direction of affairs. But the general dissatisfaction having led to a coalition between the Presbyterians and Royalists, the army, unable to carry on the government, was reduced to the necessity of once more restoring the Rump, which had been twice ignominiously

RUM SHRUB-RUNES.

expelled. The advance of Monk, however, with the ariny of Scotland led to a general cry throughout the country for a free parliament. A number of the members who had been excluded by Pride's Purge reappearing in the House, placed the Independents in the minority; and on 16th March 1660, the despised and derided Rump at last solemnly decreed its own dissolution. The most prominent members of the Rump Parliament were Vane and Hazlerig.

RUM SHRUB, a liqueur in which the alcoholic base is rum, and the other materials are sugar, lime or lemon juice, and the rind of these fruits added to give flavour. Almost every maker has his own receipt, and much credit is assumed by each for his own especial mixture.

it corresponds. Runes being associated in the popular belief with augury and divination, were, to a considerable extent, discouraged by the early Christian priests and missionaries, whose efforts were directed to the supplanting of them by Greek and Roman characters. But it was not easy suddenly to put a stop to their use, and we find runes continuing to be employed in early Christian inscriptions. This was to a remarkable extent the case in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, and East Anglia, where we have traces of runic writing of dates varying from the middle of the 7th to the middle of the 10th century. Its continued prevalence in this particular district has been accounted for by the fact that, after the death of Edwin and the flight of St Paulinus, the restoration of Christianity in Northumbria was effected RU'NCORN, a thriving market and manufac- by missionaries of the Irish school, whose predecesturing town and river-port of Cheshire, on the left sors had adopted the policy, not, like Augustine bank of the Mersey, 12 miles south-east of Liver and his brethren, of destroying the monuments of pool. There is a station of the North-western Rail-pagan antiquity, but of allowing them to remain, way on the Lancashire side of the river, and the town and consecrating them by marking them with the is the terminus for the Bridgewater and the Mersey symbols of Christianity. Runes are said to have and Irwell Canals. It is a free port, has a custom-been laid aside in Sweden by the year 1001, and in house, and contains iron-foundries, soap and chem- Spain they were officially condemned by the Council ical works, ship-building yards, &c.; and in the of Toledo in 1115. vicinity are collieries, and slate and freestone quarries. Large quantities of freestone are shipped for distant ports. In 1864, 4566 vessels, of 278,000 tons, entered and cleared the port. Pop. (1851) 8049; (1861) 10,434.

The different systems of runes, all accordant up to a certain point, have been classed as the AngloSaxon, the German, and the Norse, each containing different subordinate varieties. The Norse alpha bet is generally considered the oldest, and the RUNES, the earliest alphabet in use among the parent of the rest. It has 16 letters corresponding Teutonic and Gothic nations of Northern Europe. to our f, u, th, o, r, k, h, n, i, a, s, t, b, l, m, y, but The exact period of their origin is not known. The has no equivalent for various sounds which existed name is derived from the Teutonic run, a mystery, in the language, in consequence of which the sound whence runa, a whisper, and helrún, divination; of k was used for g, d for t, b for p, and u and y for and the original use of these characters seems too was expressed by au, and e by ai, i, or ia; and have been for purposes of secrecy and divination. the same letter otherwise was made to serve for The resemblance which some of the runic charac- more than one sound. Other expedients came, in ters bear to the Phoenician alphabet and others the course of time, to be employed to obviate the derived from it, has led to the supposition that they deficiency of the system, as the addition of dots, were first introduced by Phoenician merchants who and the adoption of new characters. But the runic traded with the coasts of the Baltic; and while the system received a fuller development among the mass of the people were allowed to possess but a Germans and Anglo-Saxons, particularly the latter, very partial acquaintance with them, the priests whose alphabet was extended to no fewer than forty systematised them, and retained a full knowledge of characters, in which seem to have been embraced, them in their own hands, no doubt finding them more nearly than in any modern alphabets, the actual useful in establishing a reputation for superior sounds_of_a_ language. Till recently, the Norse power and intelligence. Scandinavian and Anglo- runes had been most studied; but of late the Saxon tradition agree in ascribing the invention of Anglo-Saxon have become the subject of considerrunic writing to Ŏdin or Wodin. The countries in able attention. The following table exhibits the which traces of the use of runes exist include Den-best known forms of the Anglo-Saxon, German, and mark, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Germany, Britain, Norse runic alphabets, with the names and the France, and Spain; and they are found engraved on power of the several letters: rocks, crosses, monumental stones, coins, medals, rings, brooches, and the hilts and blades of swords. Runic letters were also often cut on smooth sticks called rûn-stafas, or mysterious staves, and used for purposes of divination. But there is no reason to Y believe that they were at any time in the familiar use in which we find the characters of a written language in modern times, nor have we any traces of their being used in books or on parchment. We have an explanation of the runic alphabet in various MSS. of the early middle ages, prior to the time when runes had altogether ceased to be understood.

The systems of runes in use among the different branches of the Teutonic stock were not identical, though they have a strong general family likeness, shewing their community of origin. The letters are arranged in an order altogether distinct from that of any other alphabetical system, and have a purely Teutonic nomenclature. Each letter is, as in the Hebrew-Phoenician, derived from the name of some well-known familiar object, with whose initial letter

र

ANGLO-SAXON.

OS

thorn

rad

cæn

o (short)

r

k

GERMAN. NORSE

feoh

f

th

n

is

i (short)

W