SALTS.

1

hydrogen of the acid (HCl), the sodium of the phate of sodium (see Miller's Inorganic Chemistry, 2d former combines with the chlorine of the latter to ed., 1860, p. 333; or Galloway's Second Step in Chemform choride of sodium (NaCl). Hence, strangely istry, 1864, pp. 128-130), and though some chemists enough, the very substance from which the salts see many objections to it, as a few difficulties still prederive their naine as a class, was the means of sent themselves, it is probable that the progress of disoverthrowing the old idea that a salt, as a matter covery will ultimately lead to its universal adoption, of necessity, must result from the union of a base which would greatly simplify many parts of the sciwith an acid. It was then proposed to divide salts ence. The definition of acids as salts of hydrogen was into two classes-those formed by the union of a first clearly enunciated by Gerhardt, and is an accubase with an oxyacid, such as nitrate of potash rate statement of the relations which exist between (KO,NO,), formed by the union of oxide of potas- acids and other chemical substances. The tern. sium with nitric acid, sulphate of soda (NaO,SO,), salt is now commonly and most appropriately apcarbonate of lime (CaO,CO,), &c., which were plied to those bodies of which the reaction of double terned oxysalts; while the other class consisted, decomposition is the most characteristic property, like chloride of sodium, of a metal combined with and which exhibit such reactions under the most the characteristic element (chlorine, iodine, bromine, familiar conditions. fluorine) in a hydrogen acid or hydracid (as, for example, hydrochloric, hydriodic, hydrobromic, or hydrofluoric acid). The salts of this second class, of which chloride of potassium (KCl) and fluoride of calcium (CaF) may be quoted as examples, being constructed on the same plan or type as sea-salt, were termed Haloid Salts (q. v.), from the Greek word hals, the sea. The chlorine, iodine, bromine, or fluorine, which, in combination with a metal, forms a haloid salt, is by some writers termed a saltradical.

The salts have been thus arranged (the old nomenclature is here retained):

1. Neutral or Normal Salts; 2. Acid Salts; and 3. Basic Salts. A salt is neutral which is composed of as many atoms or equivalents of the acid as there are of oxygen in the metallic base. If the base is a protoxide, or contains 1 atom of oxygen, 1 atom of the acid is combined with it. Sulphate of potash (KO,SO,), nitrate of copper (CuO,NO5), and carbonate of potash (KO,CO,) are all neutral in their composition, each consisting of one atom 'The great resemblance in properties between of the acid in combination with one atom of a the two classes of saline compounds, the haloid metallic protoxide. But all these salts are not and oxysalts, has very naturally led to the supposi-neutral, if we judge of their neutrality by their tion, that both might possibly be alike constituted; exerting no action on litmus or turmeric paper, and that the latter, instead of being considered compounds of an oxide and an acid, might with greater propriety be considered to contain a metal in union with a compound salt-radical, having the chemical relations of chlorine and iodine. On this supposition, sulphate and nitrate of potash will be constituted in the same manner as chloride of potassium, the compound radical replacing the simple one.

Hydrated sulphuric acid will be, like hydrochloric acid, a hydride of a salt-radical, H+ SO. When the latter acts upon metallic zinc, the hydrogen is simply displaced, and the metal substituted. No decomposition of water is supposed to occur, and consequently the difficulty of the old hypothesis is at an end. When the acid is poured upon a metallic oxide, the same reaction occurs as in the case of hydrochloric acid; water and a haloid salt are produced. All acids must be, in fact, hydrogen acids; and all salts haloid salts, with either simple or compound radicals.'-Fownes's Manual of Elementary Chemistry, 9th ed., 1863, p. 269.

This view, which is frequently termed the binary theory of salts, was originally suggested by Davy, but it remained for many years nothing more than (to use the words of Professor Miller)an elegant hypothesis,' till it was further illustrated by certain of Liebig's researches in organic chemistry, and till, in certain special cases, it received direct confirmation from the voltaic researches of Daniell and Miller, who found that when a current from two or three of Grove's cells was transmitted through fused nitrate of silver (AgO,NO5), the latter was resolved into crystals of silver (Ag) at one pole, and NO. (which at once broke up into red fumes of peroxide of nitrogen and free oxygen) at the other.

6

The binary theory serves to explain in the most satisfactory way many chemical changes, as, for example, the modifications of phosphoric acid and phos

for while the first is neutral to test-paper, the second exhibits an acid, and the third an alkaline reaction; and hence the use of the term normal, in preference to that of neutral, as applied to this class, has been judiciously advocated by Miller and other chemists. If the base is a sesquioxide, three atoms of the acid combine with one atom of the base to form a neutral or normal salt: thus, the sulphates of alumina and of sesquioxide of iron are represented by the formulæ A10,3SO; Fe20,3SO; and as these salts not only redden litmus, but have an acid taste, they afford an additional reason for our preference to the term normal over neutral salts.

and

Acid Salts are generally formed by dissolving normal salts in the same kind of acid which they contain, by which means a new salt is often, but by no means always formed. Thus, if normal sulphate of potash (KO,SO) be dissolved in hot sulphuric acid, tablets of a new and strongly acid salt will appear as the solution cools. These crystals consist of bisulphate or acid sulphate of potash, and their composition is represented by the formula KO,HO,2SO„, or KO,SO ̧ † ĦO,SO„, in which the atom of water may be regarded as acting in the character of a weak base. If a similar experiment is made of dissolving nitrate of potash in hot nitric acid, no new salt will be formed, the nitre crystallising out unchanged. Why some acids should have the power of forming acid salts, and others should not possess the property, is unknown.

+

In Basic Salts, or Sub-salts, as they are often termed, the proportion of base predominates over that of the acid, there being two or three or more atoms of the basic oxide combined with one atom of the acid. Thus, nitric acid forms with oxide of lead not only the normal salt, PbO,NO, but three basic salts-viz., 2Pьо,NO, зPьо,NO, and 6PbO,NO, Sulphuric acid forms with oxide of mercury not only the normal salt, HgO,SO, but the basic salt commonly known as turpeth mineral, and represented by the formula 3HgO,SO

There is one other class of salts requiring a brief notice-viz., the Double Salts. Many neutral salts containing the same acid, but different bases,

SALTWORT-SALUZZO.

the electro-negative, and the base the electro-positive constituent of the salts. When a haloid salt is similarly treated, the halogen (chlorine, &c.) is separated at the positive pole, while the metal is liberated at the negative pole.

may be made to combine so as to form salts of the pole. In consequence of this result, the acid is termed class now under consideration. Thus, sulphate of potash and sulphate of alumina (both of which are neutral sulphates) by combining, give rise to the double salt popularly known as alum, and represented by the formula KO,SO, + Al,O,,3SO, +24 Aq. Similarly, double salts of silicic acid are of common occurrence. Thus, the varieties of felspar are double silicates of alumina with potash, suda, lithia, or lime, but most commonly with potash, and they may be represented by the general for mula MO,SiO + AlỖ,3SiO,, where MO stands for potash, soda, &c.

The salts at ordinary temperatures are solid bodies, with a strong tendency to crystallisation, although a considerable number are amorphous. They may be either colourless or coloured. When a colourless acid combines with a colourless base, the resulting salt does not exhibit colour. A coloured base combining with a colourless acid transmits its colour to the resulting salts, and if a coloured acid combine with a colourless base, a similar but less marked result ensues. The salts usually have a decided taste, which is usually dependent on the base; the sulphites are, however, an exception to this rule, as their taste resembles that of the acid. They are variously influenced by high temperatures: some remain unchanged; while others volatilise, fuse, and either simply lose their water of crystallisation, or become decomposed. Most salts are soluble in water, and some, as, for example, carbonate of potash and chloride of calcium, have so strong a tendency to dissolve in that fluid, that they abstract the moisture of the atmosphere. Such salts are termed deliquescent. As a general rule, hot water exerts a far more powerful solvent action than cold. There are,

however, some remarkable exceptions to this law. Thus, the solubility of common salt (chloride of sodium) is very nearly the same, whatever be the temperature of the water, and certain salts of lime are more soluble in cold than in hot water.

latter occurs.

SALTWORT (Salsola), a genus of plants of the natural order Chenopodiaceae, having hermaphrodite flowers, with 5-parted perianth, and a transverse appendage at the base of each of its segments, five stamens and two styles, the seed with a simple integument. The species are numerous, mostly natives of salt-marshes and sea-shores, widely

Prickly Saltwort (Salsola kali).

diffused. One only, PRICKLY S. (S. kali), is found iv the United States. It has herbaceous prostrate muchbranched stems, awl-shaped spine-pointed leaves, and axillary solitary greenish flowers. It was formerly collected in considerable quantities on the western shores of Britain, to be burned for the sake of the soda which it thus yields. S. sativa is the chief Barilla (q. v.) plant of the south of Spain.

The

SALU'TE. The United States national salute is President of the United States alone is to receive a one gun for each state composing the Union. salute of 21 guns; Vice-president, 17; heads of departments, the general commanding, governors of states and territories within their respective jurisdictions, 15; a major-general, 13; a brigadier, 11; foreign ships-of-war, in return for a similar compliment, gun for gun on notice being officially received of such intention. If there be several ports in sight of or within six miles of each other, the principal only shall reciprocate compliments with ships passing. Officers of the navy are saluted according to relative rank. Foreign officers invited to visit a fort or post may be saluted according to their relative rank. Envoys and ministers of the United States and foreign powers are to be saluted with 13 guns. be fired at noon on the anniversery of the independence of the United States at each military post and camp provided with artillery and ammunition.

It has been already shewn that an atom of water enters into the composition of certain salts in precisely the same way as an atom of potash or any other base. Such water is termed basic water, and is an integral constituent of the salt, from which it cannot be expelled by an ordinary heat. This water is quite distinct from the water of crystallisation, which is taken up by many salts in a definite quantity, when crystallising from water, and which is readily expelled by a gentle heat without altering the chemical properties of the salt. The crystalline form of salts which contain water of crystallisation is much influenced by the proportion in which the Thus, green vitriol (sulphate of iron) crystallises in two different forms and with two different proportions of water according to the temperature at which the salt separates from its solution. The number of equivalents of water of crystallisation may vary from 1 to 24, which is the highest number yet observed. In order to distinguish the water of crystallisation from water acting as a base, we characterise it by the symbol Aq. (from the Latin aqua, water). The ordinary phosphate of soda is represented by the formula 2NaO,HO,PO, +24 Aq. Many salts which contain water of crystallisation (for example, sulphate or carbonate of soda) give off the whole or a part of their water SALUʼZZO, an episcopal city of Northern Italy, of crystallisation in a dry atmosphere, and crumble in the province of Cuneo, at the foot of the Alps, to powder; such salts are said to effloresce. Salts 22 miles east of Mount Viso. It is a fine old city, which contain no water of crystallisation are and contains a semi-Gothic cathedral built in 1480, termed anhydrous; of which nitre (KO,NO) is an with pillars of rare marbles, and colossal statues example. All salts, when dissolved in water, are exquisitely sculptured, a seminary for priests, a royal readily decomposed by the electric current, the base college, and several elementary and infant schools. going to the negative, and the acid to the positive | The Tower of the Commune, an ancient and singular

A national salute is to

SALVAGE-SALZBURG.

SALZKAMMERGUT-SAMARIA.

with Vienna by railway, and is the seat of considerable transit trade. Pop. 18,550.

SAMARA', a frontier government of Russia, bounded on the east by the Kirghiz Steppes, and on the W. by the governments of Saratov, Simbirsk, and Kazan. Area, 61,210; pop. 1,690,779. It was erected into a government by ukase of December, 1850, and was formed out of portions of the governments of Simbirsk, Orenburg, and Saratov. The Volga, which forms the western boundary, and its affluent, the Samara, are the chief rivers. The country is very fertile, and agriculture and fishing are among the chief employments of the inhabitants. Only a comparatively small portion of the country is colonised. Chief town, Samara (q. v.).

SALZKA'MMERGUT, called also the Austrian Switzerland, one of the most picturesque districts of Europe, forms the south-west angle of the crownland of Austria ob der Enns, between the crownlands of Salzburg on the west, and Styria on the east. Area, 249 sq. m.; pop. (1864) 17,000, of whom 6500 are Protestants. The scenery combines in rare beauty the usual features of valley, mountain, and lake. The vales are clothed with a rich verdure, and are studded with clumps of fruit and forest trees; the mountains are covered with beeches and oaks; higher up with pines and larches, SAMARA, capital of the Russian government of and in some instances are topped with everlasting the same name, on the left bank of the Volga, at snow. The highest peak, Grosse Priel, reaches an the junction of that river with the Samara. It is altitude of 7931 feet. But the district derives its the chief grain-market on the Volga, and it contains reputation for beauty chiefly from its lakes, the numerous storehouses, especially for grain. A good largest and most famous of which are the Hallstadt trade in salt, fish, caviare, and tallow is also carried and the Traun, or Gmunden lakes. They are on. From S. comes a great number of lambs' skins, bordered with lofty mountains, which rise sheer which are famous for their fineness. Pop. 34,131. from the surface of the water; and their pit-like character, and the strong light and shade thrown on them from the mountains, combine to render the scenery, of which they form the centre, unusually sublime. The Hallstadt and Traun lakes are connected, and indeed formed by the river Traun. The district of S. derives its name from the salt which ́s obtained in enormous quantities from its springs and mines. Salt being a government monopoly in Austria, the works are under the management of the Kammer, or exchequer. From 6000 to 7000 of the inhabitants are employed in the salt-works, and the amount annually obtained is 39,375 tons. The chief seats of the salt-works are Ischl (q. v.) and Hallstadt. Little or no agriculture is carried on in the S., and the inhabitants not engaged in the main industry of the district are engaged in cattlebreeding and in the timber trade.

SAʼLZWEDEL, a small manufacturing town of Prussian Saxony, 54 miles north-north-west of Magdeburg, on the Jeetze. It carries on sugarrefining, and manufactures of linen, woollen, and cotton fabrics. Pop. 8117.

SAMANI AND DILEMI were two dynasties which divided between them the kingdom of Persia towards the beginning of the 10th century. They both rose to power through the favour of the califs, but they speedily threw off the yoke. The Dilemi, divided into two branches, exercised sovereign authority in Kerman, Irak, Fars, Khuzistan, and Laristan, always acknowledging their nominal dependence on the calif; and during the whole period of their rule, one of the southern branch of this family was vested with the dignity of emir-ulomra, or vizier, and managed the affairs of the califate. Several of the Dilemi were able and wise rulers, as the remains of their works of irrigation and other structures amply testify; but Mahmud of Ghizni put an end to the rule of the northern branch in 1029, and the Seljuks subjugated the southern one in 1056, by the capture of Bagdad, their last stronghold. Their more powerful rivals, the Samani, had obtained from the calif the government of Transoxiana in 874 A.D.; and to this, Ismail, the most celebrated prince of the family, speedily added Khaurezm, Balkh, Khorassan, Seistan, and many portions of Northern Turkestan. Rebellions of provincial governors distracted the Samanide monarchy towards the end of the 10th c., and in 999 A. D., their dominions north of Persia were taken possession of by the khan of Kashgar, the Persian provinces being added by Mahmud of

Ghizni to his dominions.

SAMAR, one of the Philippine Islands (q. v.).

north of Java, 385 miles (by steamboat course), SAMARA'NG, an important seaport on the east of Batavia, in 6 57' 20" S. lat., and 110° 26 30 E. long., is the capital of the Residency, and the point to which the produce of Middle Java is brought for exportation to Europe. Pop. 30,000. The city lies on the right bank of the river Samarang, a shallow, muddy stream 90 feet in breadth. The Chinese, Malays, and Arabians have their own captains, and separate quarters of small, dark, dirty the sea-shore, but chiefly on the left side of the river, The 1600 Europeans dwell partly along by the shady road to Bodjong, the resident's house, which is two miles from the city. The Protestants and Roman Catholics have each a church, orphanprivate schools, an excellent hospital for 550 patients, house, and school. There are 3 public and 12

houses.

and other charitable institutions.

The

Only small vessels can enter the river. roadstead is exposed to the west wind, and is dangerous during the rainy season. Besides the usual trades, the natives work in gold, silver, copper, and tin. Coffee, rice, sugar, tobacco, and indigo are the chief exports, an agent of the Netherlands Trading Company (q. v.) being established at S. to attend to the government trade.

In 1860, the pop. of the residency of S. amounted to 970,201 souls, 3765 being European, and 10,730 Chinese.

SAMA'RIA (Heb. Shomeron, Chald. Shamrayin, Septuagint, Samareia, Semeron, &c.), anciently a city of Palestine, the chief seat of the Ephraimitic Baalworship, and, from the seventh year of Omri's reign, the capital of the kingdom of Israel. It was beautifully situated on a hill about six miles north-west of Shechem, and probably derived its name (which may be interpreted' pertaining to a watch' or a 'watchmountain ') from the position of the hill, which rises from the centre of a wide valley, and com mands an extensive prospect; but an eponymous etymology is adopted by the writer of 1st Kings, who says (chap. xvi. verse 24): And he [Omri bought the hill Samaria of Shemer for two talents of silver, and built on the hill, and called the name of the city which he built, after the name of Sherner, owner of the hill, Samaria.' The date assigned to Omri's purchase is 925 B.C., from which time S. became the seat of government, which had been formerly at Thirsa. It was twice besieged by the Syrians (901 B. C., and 892 B. C.), under Ahab and Joram, on both occasions unsuccessfully; but in 721 (720) B. C., it was stormed by Shalmaneser. king of Assyria, after a three years' siege. Its inhabitants, together with those of all the other

SAMARIA-SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH.

SAMA'RITAN PENTATEUCH, a recension of the commonly received Hebrew text of the Mosaic law, in use with the Samaritans, and their only canonical book of the Old Testament. Some vague allusions in some of the Church Fathers (Origen, Jerome, Eusebius), and one or two more distinct, but less generally known Talmudical utterances respecting this recension, were all the information available up to the early part of the 17th c. (1616), when Pietro della Valle acquired a complete codex from the Samaritans in Damascus. Since then, the number of manuscripts of the Samaritan Pentateuch, with and without translations (in Arabic), has considerably increased in European libraries; and fragments, consisting of special books or chapters, are of the most frequent occurrence. In fact, writing portions of Samaritan Pentateuch on the oldest of skins, would, in the face of the great demand for the article on the part of ignorant European, especially English, travellers, appear to be a favourite and lucrative pastime, if not an established trade and business, among the modern Samaritans.

These MSS. are written in the Samaritan char

cities of Samaria' (which had become the general is a Hebræo-Aramaic dialect, but contains a number name for the country itself in which the city stood), of non-Semitic (Cuthæan) words. It only survives i. e., the kingdom of Israel-or the 'ten tribes' in a few fragments of ancient literature, a translawere then carried off into a captivity from which tion of the Pentateuch, and some liturgical pieces. they never returned. Their place was supplied, after The present inhabitants speak Arabic.-See Dr a time, by colonists, planted there by Shalmaneser Robinson's Biblical Researches, Raumer's Palästina, and Esarhaddon, from Babylon, Cuthah, Ava, and Dean Stanley's Sinai and Palestine, &c. Hamath, and Sepharvaim (according to 2d Kings, chap. xvii. verse 24; Media and Persia, Josephus's Antiquities, x. 9, 7), who constituted the original body of the people subsequently known as Samaritans, but whose bulk was gradually increased by accessions of renegade Jews and others. The question has been much, and on the whole unprofitably, discussed, whether these so-called 'Samaritans' were a mixed race of remanent Israelites and heathen Assyrians, or whether they were exclusively the latter. The mere language of Scripture, strictly construed, seems to favour the second of these views, unless the term 'cities' of 2d Kings, xvii. 24, is intended to imply that the ancient inhabitants dwelt in the open country. On the other hand, we find, apart from the other reasons against so unparalleled a wholesale deportation, Israelitish inhabitants under Hezekiah and Josiah, both in Ephraim and Manasseh. Modern authorities therefore assume that they were, to a certain extent, what they always insisted on being, Israelites (not Jews), i. e., a people largely intermixed with Israelitish elements, that, during the exile, had adopted the worship of Jehovah. The returning Jews, however, would not recognise their claims to the participation in the national cultus and temple, and a bitter antagonism sprang up between the two nationalities. In 409 B. c., a rival temple was erected on Mount Gerizim, and a rival priesthood and ritual organised, and henceforth the breach, for some periods at least, became apparently irreparable- the Jews had no dealings with the Samaritans,' and vice versa. At other periods, however, a more friendly intercourse seems to have taken place between them. The rabbinical laws respecting the Kushites' (Cuthim), as they were called by the later Jews, are therefore strangely contradictory, and their discrepancies can only be explained partly by the ever-shifting phases of their mutual relations, and partly by the modifications brought about in the Samaritan creed itself. The later history of the city of S. is somewhat checkered. It was captured by Alexander the Great, when the 'Samaritan' inhabitants were driven out, and their place supplied by SyroMacedonians. It was again taken (109 B. C.) by John Hyrcanus, who completely destroyed it. Soon rebuilt, it remained for the next 50 years in possession of the Jews; but Pompey, in his victorious march, restored it to the descendants of the expelled Samaritans, who had settled in the neighbourhood, and it was refortified by Gabinius. Herod the Great rebuilt it with considerable splendour, and called it Sebaste, in honour of the Emperor Augustus, from whom he had received it as a pre

acter, a kind of ancient Hebrew writing, probably in use before, and partly after the Babylonish exile, and vary in size from octavo to folio, the writing being proportionately smaller or larger. Their material is vellum, or cotton paper, and the ink used is black, with the exception of the Nablus MS., which is written in gold. There are neither vowels, accents, nor diacritical points, the single words are divided from each other by dots. None of the MSS. that have reached Europe are older than the 10th century. The Samaritan Pentateuch was first edited by J. Morinus in the Paris Polyglott (pt. iv. 1632) from one codex (whence it found its way into Walton), and was last re-edited, written in the square Hebrew characters, by B. Blayney, Oxford, 1790. The first publication of this strange document, and principally the Exercitationes Ecclesiastica, with which J. Morinus accompanied it, mark a certain epoch in modern biblical investigation; for, incredible as it now appears, it was placed by Morinus and his followers far above the received Hebrew text, which was said to have been corrupted from it. As reasons for this, were adduced its supposed superior lucidity and harmony,' and its agreement with the Septuagint in many places. This opinion, which could only have been entertained by men devoid of knowledge, was zealously cherished, and fiercely combated for exactly 200 years, when the first proper and scientific investigation (by Gesenius) set it at rest, once for all, among the learned world at least. This In the 3d c., it became a Roman colony and absurd notion chiefly owed its popularity to the an episcopal See. Its prosperity perished with the anti-Jewish as well as anti-Protestant tendency of Mohammedan conquest of Palestine; and at present, its supporters, to whom every attack against the it is only a small village called Sebustieh, an Arab received form of the text-that text upon which corruption of Sebaste, but contains a few relics of its alone the Reformers professed to take their stand, former greatness. Samaritans,' as a religious sect, was an argument in favour of the Roman Catholic still exist at Nablus (anc. Shechem), as they have dogina as to the Rule of Faith' (q. v.). This existed in the district uninterruptedly through all boasted superiority en bloc, gradually dwindled the vicissitudes of war and conquest from the time down to two or three passages, in which the of Christ. Their present creed and form of worship Samaritan reading seemed preferable, and even agree in many particulars with that of the so- these have now been disposed of in favour of the called rabbinical' Jews, although the Samaritans authorised Masoretic text. The variants, which

sent.

pretend utterly to reject the Traditions.' They Gesenius was the first to arrange systematically, alone, however, have retained the paschal sacrifice present simply the ordinary aspect of partly of a lamb. The language of the ancient Samaritans conscious, partly unconscious corruptions. They