SAN ROQUE-SANSCÂRA. There is a seminary for priests, besides a college and many schools. Its little harbour carries on a brisk trade in oils and lemons. Nine foreign consuls reside in the town. S. R. is an ancient city, and obscure in its origin. In 1170, it was selfgoverned, and made an alliance with the Genoese against the Pisans. One of its bishops afterwards sold it to Genoa. 'San Remo is perhaps the mildest situation on all the Riviera. Here palms, lemon, and orange-trees grow with the greatest luxuriance, and the fruit of the date palm almost attains maturity.'-Murray's Handbook. In recent years, it has begun to be resorted to by English visitors, and several new and excellent hotels have been erected. Pop. 7445. SAN ROQUE, a town of Spain, in the modern province of Cadiz, on the bay of Gibraltar, and eight miles north-north-west of the town of that The salubrity of the climate, and the cheapness of living, have attracted hither many foreign families, especially English. Pop. about 7000. name. SAN SALVADO'R, the smallest, though the second in point of population, of the Central American Republics (see AMERICA), consists of a strip of territory stretching along between Honduras and the Pacific, and bounded on the W. by Guatemala, and on the E. by Fonseca Bay, which separates it from Nicaragua. It averages 180 miles in length, by about 40 in breadth, and contains an area of 7230 English sq. m., with a population (according to the most recent estimate) of 750,000, or 103 to the sq. m. The northern frontier is formed by a portion of the great Cordillera chain, and parallel to this range, and between it and the Pacific sea-board, runs another range of mountains along the whole length of the country, breaking it up into an inland valley, and a long low rich belt along the coast. This central range is highly volcanic in character, and has 16 volcanic peaks, ranging in height from 7386 to 4000 feet high. S. S. possesses numerous lakes, the largest of which is Guija, about 90 miles in circumference, and abounding in fish. The greater portion of the interior valley, and the alluvial strip fying along the coast, are of extreme fertility, and agriculture is extensively and successfully practised, to the almost total exclusion of pastoral pursuits. The principal agricultural products are indigo, sugar, and maize, cotton also being successfully cultivated in the districts around La Libertad and the Bay of Jiquilisco. The coast from Acajutla (30 miles from the western frontier) to La Libertad is known as the Costa del Balsamo, or Balsam Coast, as in the woods of this district is produced the famous balsam known as 'Balsam of Peru,' in such quantities that from 17,600 to 22,000 lbs. av. are annually exported. The mineral wealth of S. S. is not great, but rich veins of silver are found at Tabanco in the north east, and mines of iron in the west near Santa Ana, S. S. has considerable export trade in indigo (which is known in trade as 'indigo of Guatemala,' and is reckoned the finest of all) and sugar, as well as turpentine, cocoa, cotton, and spices. In 1868, the value of exports amounted to about $2,420,000, and that of imports to $2,900,000; in the year 1861, 20 steamers and 21 sailing vessels, amounting to 24,554 tons, entered and cleared the ports of the republic. The climate of S. S. is salubrious, and the temperature is lower than might be expected from the low latitude and general want of elevation of the country. The Indians are of the Aztec race, speak the Spanish language, and profess the Roman Catholic religion (the one established by statute), but retain many of their old heathen rites, and live in a certain degree apart from the rest of the population. They have the rights of citizens, but generally exercise them under the advice of the government. The government is carried on by a president, vice-president, and two ministers, one for foreign affairs and finance, and the other for internal business and war. The legislature consists of two chambers, an upper one of 12 senators, and a lower of 24 representatives. Education is well provided for, every village of 50 inhabitants being bound by law to support a school, and there is a which is well endowed by the state. The standing university in the capital, San Salvador (q. v.), army is 1000 men. riches,' is said to have been, previous to the immiS. S. originally called Cuscatlan, the land of gration of Europeans, the best peopled and most civilised country in America. It was conquered after a long and obstinate contest by Pedro de Alvarado, a lieutenant of Cortes, and under the Spanish rule was one of the most flourishing portions of the Guatemalan kingdom. In 1821, it threw off the yoke, and joined the Mexican Confederation, from which, however, it seceded in 1823. The several trials since made of a union among the Central American States have ended in the dissolution of all political connection; and S. S. is now an independent republic. In 1863, war broke out between S. S. and Guatemala, in which Honduras joined the former, and Nicaragua the latter. The result was the defeat of S. S., and the expulsion of the president from the country. A new president having been appointed February 20, 1864, tranquillity was gradually restored. SAN SALVADOR, the capital of the republic of San Salvador, was founded in 1589, and supplanted an older town which had been built in 1528 by a brother of Pedro de Alvarado. It was the capital of the Union of Central America from 1823 till 1839. In 1854, it was a fine, well-built city, adorned with numerous splendid buildings, and containing a population of more than 30,000, but on the night of April 16th it was completely destroyed by an earthquake, and about 100 lives lost. In January 1855, it again became the seat of governinent, and its population is now about 40,000. The trade, which equally suffered, is gradually assuming its former flourishing condition, and is carried on mostly through the port of La Libertad, which is about five miles distant. SANSANDI'NG, a large town in the north-west of Africa, in Bambarra, about 20 miles north-east of Sego, on the left bank of the Niger, here called the Joliba. A considerable trade in salt, beads, coral, gold-dust, and cotton cloth is here carried on. Pop. from 10,000 to 11,000. SANSCÂRA, or SANSKÅRA (lit. completing perfecting), is the name of the ten essential rites or ceremonies of the Hindus of the first three castes. They are the ceremonies to be performed at the conception of a child; on vitality in the foetus, in the fourth, sixth, or eighth month of pregnancy; and at the time of his birth, before dividing the navel string; the ceremony of naming the child on the tenth, eleventh, or hundred-and-first day; the ceremony of carrying the child out to see the moon on the third lunar day of the third light fortnight, or to The population is composed of whites (of Spanish see the sun in the third or fourth month; of feeding origin), Indians, Ladinos (of mixed white and Indian him in the sixth or eight month (or at other stated blood), negroes, and mulattoes. The whites form periods); the ceremony of tonsure in the second or little more than one-fifth, the Indians one-third. third year; of investiture with the string in the SANSCRIT-SANSCRIT LITERATURE. fifth, eighth, or sixteenth year-when he is handed further historical development is based. In the to a guru to become a religious student; and the transition period of the Brahman'a and ritual portion ceremony of marriage, after he has completed his of the Vedas and the Upanishads, grammar and vocabstudies, and is fit to perform the sacrifices ordained by his sacred writings. SANSCR'IT, or SANSKRIT (from the Sanscrit sam = Gr. syn, with, together,' and kr'ita, done,' with an epenthetic 8, imparting greater emphasis to the sense of the compound; hence, thoroughly done, finished, accomplished') is the name of the ancient language of the Hindus; in which their whole sacred literature, and by far the greatest amount of their numerous ritual, legal, poetical, and scientific works, are written. S. belongs to that stock of languages commonly called the Indo-European, or Indo-Germanic, which includes the Indian, the Medo-Persian, the Græco-Latin, the Germanic, the Lithuanian-Slavonian, and the Gallo-Celtic families. It is therefore intimately allied to the ancient and modern languages comprised in each of these families, itself being the parent of the Prakrit (q. v.) dialects, the Pali (q. v.), and the languages spoken in the north of India. Compared with the ancient languages kindred with it, S. has come down to us in a state of preservation and development so much superior to theirs, that it must be looked upon as the principal means which enables us to understand the affinity, and in general the linguistic laws which pervade the structure of these languages. The essay of Franz Bopp, Ueber das Conjugations system der Sanskrit Sprache, dated 16th May 1816, began a new era in the study of language. See PHILOLOGY, ВОРР. ulary offer similar difficulties to those of the Vedic hymns; but though for this reason the aid of the commentaries is likewise indispensable, they are much less numerous; and in those works of this extended period, which probably were composed at the classical epoch, the difference between the two is even inconsiderable. In comparing S. with other kindred languages, it is therefore necessary not to lose sight of these periods of the language, and of the peculiarities inherent in them. SANSCRIT LITERATURE. The most natural, and, at the same time, the most scientific distribution of Sanscrit literature would be that according to the dates at which its writings were composed. The actual condition of Sanscrit philology, however, renders such a course impossible; for, with the exception of very few works, no date whatever is known to which they could be safely assigned. (See INDIA-Religion; VEda.) In spite, therefore, of an apparent plausibility with which some authors have propounded a regular literary chronology of Sanscrit works, even with figures or dates appended to them, the general reader will do well to look upon all such dates as imaginary, and to rest satisfied with the hope, that perhaps future results of Sanscrit philology may afford a more satisfactory settlement of this vexed question of Sanscrit chronology. Under these circumstances, the only possible arrangement of Sanscrit literature is that suggested by their contents, irrespectively of the time at which they were composed, but, under each head, in that order which, within large margins, may be suggestive of consecutiveness. There are two great periods into which the history of the S. language may be conveniently divided: the first embracing the language as contained in the Vedic hymns (see VEDA); and the second, that represented by the so-called classical S., in which 1. Religious Literature.-It comprises, in the first the epic works, the law codes, and the later litera-place, the Vedas, and the mystical, philosophical, ture are written. Between the two there is a transi- and ritual works connected with them (see VEDA tion period of the language, to which the Brahman'a and UPANISHAD); and secondly, the PURAN'AS (q. v.) and ritual portion of the Vedas, and the Upani- and TANTRAS (q. v.), besides prayer-books and shads, may be assigned. In the language of the Vedic smaller works, and treatises of less importance hymns, the grammar is less developed and much relating to the modern worship, based on the two less settled than in the classical S.; it contains, latter classes of works. moreover, many forms which at the second period became obsolete, or altogether disappeared from use; the structure of its sentences, too, is simpler, though it is more elliptical than in classical poetry. Another main difference between the two periods lies in the sense of its words. Though this is the same in many words of the Vedic hymns and the classical literature, still there are numerous words, which, though the same in form at both periods, have a sense which differs according as it belongs to the one or the other class of writings. The difficulty thus presented by the Vedic hymns is in a great measure removed by the commentators who explain the meanings of the Vedic words, and, in doing so, follow tradition, which, considering the peculiarities of Hindu history, and also internal evidence, is in all probability immemorial, and therefore the safest if not the only guide in the understanding of the oldest Vedic works. That their explanations may have become unsafe in some instances, would be but natural; but it is certain that these instances are the rare exceptions; and it is likewise certain that when modern Sanscritists-and several of these only imperfectly acquainted with S. grammar-have attempted to supersede those traditional meanings by interpretations which they suppose better suited to the context, or to some assumed etymology of their own, their rendering may better adapt the Vedic to the classical vocabulary, but is sure to falsify that understanding which the Hindu mind had of its oldest and most sacred works, and on which its 2. Law Literature.-It is comprised under the name of Dharmas'astra (from dharma, law-religious and civil-and s'astra, book), and its origin is traceable to the ritual Sutras relating to the Vedas. A complete Dharmas'âstra consists of three portions: the first treating of Achâra, or established rules of conduct,' comprising such matters as education, marriage, the funeral rites, the duties of a king, &c. ; the second treating of Vyavahara, or judicature, including law, private and criminal, and under the former, for instance, the law of inheritance and adoption; the third, on Prayas'chitta, or penance, treating, besides this subject, also of impurity, the duties of a devotee, transmigration, and final beatitude. The chief extant representatives of this class are the codes of MANU (q. v.) and Yâjnavalkya (q. v.). Less complete than the latter for it does not contain the Vyavahâra portion-is the code of PARAS'ARA (q. v.); but it deserves special mention, as the modern Hindus consider it to have been especially composed for the requirements of the Kaliyuga, or the present mundane age, and as it is cited, therefore, as the authority, for instance, on the question, and in favour, of the remarriage of Hindu widows. For practical purposes, especially those concerning Vyavahâra, the chief actual authorities are the commentaries on Manu, Yajnavalkya, and similar works, and the digests which have grown up from them. Amongst the former, the MITAKSHARA (q. v.), ty Vijnânes'wara, occupies the principal rank; and amongst the latter, the Chintaman'i SANSCRIT LITERATURE. This Viramitrodaya, Vyavahára-mayúkha, Smr'itichan- with her, and which, like the Amaras ataka, has driku, and Vyavahara-Madhaviya, which generally also been explained in a mystical sense, Kr'ishn'a defer to the authority of the Mitakshara; and, then being represented as the soul which for a time besides these, the Dâyabhaga of Jîmûtavâhana, becomes estranged from the supreme soul, its which, like the Dayatattwa of Raghunandana, original source, but finally returns to it. differs from it on several important questions, poem differs from those mentioned before in being for instance, on that relating to the hereditary intended for singing and for representation at a rights of women. (See MITAKSHARA.) As on the festival held in honour of Vishn'u; it combines the Vyavahâra, there are numerous smaller treatises on lyric and the melo-dramatic character. the Achâra and Prayas'chitta. 3. Poetical Literature.-(a.) The two great epic poems. See RAMAYAN'A and MAHABHARATA. (b.) The Modern Epic Poems.-Their subject-matter is entirely borrowed from the two great epic poems and other legendary works; and their only merit consists in the art bestowed by their authors on the versification, and all that relates to the aesthetical canon of Hindu poets, which, in some respects, may meet with the approbation of western critics, but, in others, would require in the European reader a total abnegation of his ideas of poetical beauty, in order to make these poems acceptable to him. Minute descriptiveness, elaborateness of diction, and an abundance of figures of speech, are some of the characteristics of these poems, amongst which those of Kâlidâsa approach nearest our standard of poetical | worth. One of them, the Bhattikâvya, which relates to the history of Rama, was purposely composed for illustrating rules of grammar and formations of words of special interest. In another, the RaghavaPandaviya, the ambiguity of the diction is so studied, that the poem may be interpreted as relating to the history of Rama, or other descendants of Das'aratha (see RAMAYAN'A), or to that of the descendants of Pân'd'u (see MAHABHARATA). The following are the Maha-kavya or great poems of this class: the Raghuvans'a and Kumarasambhava, by Kâlidâsa (q. v.); the Nalodaya, also ascribed, though probably wrongly, to the same poet; the Bhat't'ikávya, or the poem by Bhat't'i; the S'is'upâlabadha, by Mâgha, hence also called the Maghakavya; the Naishadiyacharita, by Sriharsha; the Kirâtárjuniya, by Bharavi; and the Raghava-Pân'd'aviya, by Kaviraja (i. e., the prince of poets), as the author calls himself. (c.) Lyric and Erotic Poetry.-Several works of this class are more of a descriptive character, and would differ therefore from what in European poetry might be included under this head. The principal works belonging to it are the following: the R'itusanhâra, or a description of the seasons, attributed to Kâlidâsa (q. v.); the Meghadûta, or the cloud-messenger, also supposed to have been written by Kâlidâsa-a poem in which a demigod, separated by fate from his wife, is imagined to make a cloud the messenger to her of his woes, and incidentally, as it were, describes his course over a large tract of India; the Amarûs'ataka, or hundred stanzas of Amaru, on amatory feelings and scenes, the natural sense of which commentators have twisted also into one of a mystical character, so as to make them appear less objectionable, especially as they were supposed by some to have been composed by the celebrated theologian Sankara, when he had animated the dead body of King Amaru (see S'ANKARA); these stanzas have an epigrammatic character, and share in this respect the style of the first S'ataka, or hundred verses on love, by Bhartr'ihari; the Bhaminivilása, by Jagannatha Pan'd'itarâja, in four books, the second of which is connected with amatory subjects, while the third is a beautiful elegy on the death of the poet's wife; the Gitagovinda, by Jayadeva, who probably lived in the 12th c., which, in ten sections, describes the amours of Kr'ishn'a with the cowherdesses, his separation from his wife Rådhâ, and his ultimate reconciliation (d.) Didactic Poetry.-A portion of this class of poetry may be included under the former head, since even such works as the Amarûs'ataka, and the erotic stanzas of Bhartrihari have much of the sententious character; another is contained in the episodes of the Mahabharata, and another forms a considerable portion of the books of fables. The chief special representatives of this class are, the three S'atakas, or hundred stanzas on love, good and wise conduct, and renunciation of worldly desires, by Bhartrihari. Similar pieces of poetry are the hundred stanzas of Chanakya, and some stanzas in the anthology of S'arngadhara, called the S'ârngadharapaddhati. Others have been collected in various modern anthologies, such as the Nitisankalana and the Kavitâmr'itakupa. For the poem Bhagavadgîtâ, see under YOGA. (e.) Dramas.-The plays of the Hindus are not numerous; they were only acted on special occasions, and the subject of the plot is with predilection borrowed from the legendary literature of ancient India. Hindu dramatists have little regard for unity of time, place, and action; and with the exception of Kâlidâsa, they must be considered as inferior in poetical worth to the renowned dramatic writers of ancient Greece and of modern Europe. Besides the reasons to be sought for in the religious, mystical, and metaphysical tendencies of the Hindu mind, a free development of the Hindu drama was probably also impeded by the heavy and artificial canon which weighed upon Hindu dramaturgy, and which, ascribed to sacred sources, and looked upon as a law not to be transgressed by any dramatic poet, did not allow much scope for poetical imagination, and would keep down any free movement upon which it might have ventured. The various kinds of dramatic performances, the number of their acts, the characters of the plays, the conduct of the plot, the sentiments to be represented, and even the modes of diction-all these were strictly regulated; so much so, that in spite of the differences which must exist between different authors and plays, there is still a kind of uniformity which pervades the whole Hindu drama, and must strike any one unacquainted with this elaborate dramatical canon. It must suffice here to mention a few of its peculiarities. All dramatic composition is divided, according to it, into two great classes-the Rûpaka or performance, and the Uparûpaka, or the minor Rupaka; the former containing ten species, from the Nât'aka, or the play, par excellence, which represents exalted personages, down to the Prahasana, or farcical comedy; and the latter with eighteen species. Neither class contains the species tragedy 'which is incompatible with a belief in fate, one of the main features of the Hindu mind. Every drama opens with a prelude in the form of a dialogue between the stage-manager and one of his company, in which the name of the author and of his work, and such prior events as the spectators should know, are brought before the audience. The first part of this prelude is a prayer invoking the benediction of some deity in favour of the assembly. The piece thus being opened, is then carried on in the usual manner; but so long as the same act lasts, the stage is never left empty, but the entrance of a new personage is always announced by a special SANSCRIT LITERATURE. and an account of others, see H. H. Wilson's Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus (2 vols., London, 1835). person. The piece closes as it began, with a beneliction. The principal characters of the play are the hero (nayaka) and the heroine (nâyika). The former is either lalita, gay, thoughtless, and good- (f.) Fables and Narratives. Fables, as such, humoured; or s'ânta, gentle and virtuous; or dhiro-occur, and are referred to, as early as in the great dâtta, high-spirited, but temperate and firm; or epic poems; but the oldest collection of fables is the udûtta, ardent and ambitious; but as each of these Panchatantra (q. v.); and after it, the Hitopades'a categories is again subdivided, they become mul- (q. v.). These works are considered by the Hindus tiplied to 144 kinds. Equal minuteness is displayed to belong to the class called nîtis'âstra, or works on in specifying the classes of the heroines. The hero conduct and polity, since the morals drawn from the has his antagonist in the pratinâyaka, or counter- fables, and expressed in sentertious verses, with bero; and each of these may have his officers, minis- which they are interwoven, are the object for which ters, and friends. The heroine, on her part, has these collections were made. A different class of always a confidential companion, who is often writings are the ghost-stories, merely composed for her foster-sister. The subordinate characters are amusement, such as the Vetâlapanchavins'ati, or the described as being eunuchs, mutes, dwarfs, foresters 25 tales of the vampire; and the S'ukasaptati, or the or barbarians. Two characters, however, deserve 70 tales of the parrot; and the Sinhâsanadwátrinspecial notice, as being peculiar to the Hindu stage- s'ati, or the 32 tales of the statues on the throne of the Vita and the Vidushaka. The Vita may be Vikramaditya. A work of a higher order is the Vr'ithe companion of a man or woman; he is generally hatkatha, 'the Grand Tale,' or Kathâsaritsagara, on familiar, yet dependent terms, with his associate, the Ocean for the Rivers of Tales,' by Somadeva and though somewhat like the parasite of the Greek of Cashmere. Amongst narratives of the romance comedy, yet not rendered contemptible; if a female, class, the most celebrated are, the Das'akumára. she is a courtesan. The Vidushuka is the humble charitra, or the Adventures of the Ten Princes,' by companion of a prince or man of rank; he is always Dan'd'in, who lived about the middle of the 11th c., lively, sometimes witty, and, according to the defi- edited, with an elaborate preface, by H. H. Wilson; nition of his attributes, he is to excite mirth by Kadambari, by Vânabhatta; and the Vasavadatta, being ridiculous in person, age, and attire. He is, by Subandhu, a critical account of which work is curiously enough, always a Brahman. The plays given by Fitzedward Hall, in the preface to his have eight, or, according to some, nine rasa, or edition of it (Calcutta, 1859). characteristic flavours: these rasas are love, mirth, tenderness, fierceness, heroism, terror, disgust, wonder, and tranquillity; and they again consist of conditions with numerous divisions and subdivisions. The manner according to which the form of speech is regulated, is another peculiarity of the Hindu drama. Only the hero and the principal personages speak Sanscrit, but women--with rare exceptions-historical truth. The only approach to historical and the inferior personages speak Prâkr'it; the various, higher or inferior, idioms of that language being adapted to their higher or inferior character. See PRAKR'IT. The oldest known Sanscrit drama is the Mr'ichchhakat'i, or the Clay Cart,' by King S'ûdraka, which, in the opinion of H. H. Wilsonwho translated it in his Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus—was written in the 1st c. B.C. Of other dramas may here be mentioned Abhijnânas'akuntala (see S'AKUNTALÂ) and Vikramorvas'î, by Kalidasa (q. v.), to whom also the drama Malavikagnimitra is attributed; Malatîmâdhava, Mahaviracharita, and Uttararamacharita, by Bhavabhûti; Ratnávali, by Sriharsha; Mudrarakshasa, by Vis'âkhadatta; Hanumannáť'aka, fabled to have been composed by the monkey Hanumat (q. v.); and Anargharaghava, by Murâri. A drama of a peculiar nature is the Prabodhachandrodaya, by Kr'ishn'amis'ra, who, in the opinion of Goldstücker, expressed in the preface to his translation of this drama, lived at the end of the 12th century. Its leading personages are all of a transcendental kind; such as the supreme spirit, faith in Vishnu, volition, organ of imagination, opinion, devotion, quietude, friendship, &c., on the one side; and error, egotism, hypocrisy, love, voluptuousness, anger, avariciousness, &c., on the other; and its object is to represent the victory of the former over the latter. The general dulness of the play is relieved by a number of sectarian worshippers, who appear on the scene, each eulogising the truth of his own religion, and ridiculing that of his antagonist. That this drama, which would (c.) Lexicography.-It consists of glossaries of baffle the patience of a European audience, was words and dhátus-a term which may be vaguely acted before King Kîrtivarman, who, with his rendered by 'roots,' or 'radicals,' though it does not whole assembly, was very eager to see it,' the poet imply, to the Hindu grammarian, the idea of a linrelates in the prelude to it. An imitation of this guistic element—and of commentaries on these drama is the Chaitanyachandrodaya, by Kavikarn'a- glossaries. The oldest known glossary of Vedic pura. For the translation of several of these dramas, words-nouns and verbs-is the Nirukta (q. v.) of. (g.) Chronicles.-Historical works, in the European sense of the word, do not exist in Sanscrit literature. The same causes which have clouded all Hindu chronology, and even, at recent periods of Hindu history, have transformed historical facts into myths, seem to have rendered the Hindu mind indifferent to the research and the recording of works is found in some chronicles, though these, also, are not devoid of fictitious narratives. The most renowned among them is the Rajatarangin'{ (q. v.), or the Chronicle of Cashmere, by Kalhana. A modern work of a similar kind, but of much smaller extent, is the Kshitis'avans'avalicharita, or the Chronicle of a series of royal families who reigned in Bengal. It was composed in the middle of the last century. 4. Scientific Literature.-(a.) Philosophy. See the articles SANKHYA, YOGA, NYÂYA, VAIS'ESHIKA, MÎMÂNSA, VEDANTA. (b.) Grammar.-That a scientific study of grammar was cultivated at a very early period of Hindu literature, is borne out by the testimony of the oldest glossator on the Vedas, YÂSKA (q. v.). The oldest extant work, however, on Sanscrit grammar is posterior to the work of Yâska; it is the grammar of Pân'ini (q. v.), which was criticised by Katyâyana (q. v.) in the Vârttikas, these, again, being commented on and criticised by Patanjali in the Mahabhashya. (See PÂN'INI, where some of the principal later works connected with his system are mentioned.) That the Prâtis'akhyas (see VEDA) did not precede the grammar of Pân'ini, has been shewn by Goldstücker in his Pân'ini, his Position in Sanscrit Literature, &c. Of authors of grammars, not following the technical system of Pân'ini, the principal are, Hemachandra, a Jaina (q. v.) writer, and Vopadeva, who probably lived about six centuries ago, and is especially esteemed in Bengal. wara. SANSCRIT LITERATURE. Yaska. Renowned glossaries of classical words are the Amarakosha, by Amarasinha, who is probably not later than the 3d c. after Christ; the Abhidhanaratnamâlâ, by Halayudha; the Haimakosha, by Hemachandra; and the Vis'waprakása, by Mahes(For other works of this class, see Wilson's Sanscrit English Dictionary, preface to 1st ed., 1819; and Colebrooke's Miscellaneous Essays, vol. i. p. 50, ff.) The glossaries of dhátus are called Dhatupat has. The oldest was probably composed by Pân'ini himself, and is the groundwork of the existing works of this name, though the latter contain numerous additions of later forms. The chief commentary on the Dhâtupât'ha is that by the celebrated Madhavachârya (q. v.). (d.) Prosody.-Sanscrit prosody admits three sorts of metre: one governed by the number of syllables, and which is mostly uniform, or monoschematic, in profane poetry, but not so in various passages of the Vedas; the other regulated by feet equivalent to two long syllables, or to four short; and the third regulated by the proportion of syllabic instants, without noticing the number of feet. Some Sutras (q. v.) connected with the Vedas contain rules on the Vedic metres; but the principal work on Vedic as well as profane prosody is the Chhandah's astra, by Pingala, which has been commented on by various writers, the most conspicuous of whom is Halayudhabhat't'a. A short treatise on prosody, which only exhibits the most common sorts of metre, the S'rutabodha, is attributed, but probably wrongly, to Kâlidâsa (q. v.). (e.) Art of Poetry.-It is treated in works on dramaturgy, and works on the poetical art in general. The oldest work on the dramatic art is the Sutra of Bharata; a later one is the Das'arúpa by Dhananjaya. Some of the principal works of the latter category are the Kavyaprakâs'a, by Mammat'a, the Kavyadars'a, by Dan'd'in, and the Sahityadarpan'a, by Vis'wanatha Kaviraja. Several other works of this class are especially concerned in the explanation of figures of speech. (f) Works on Music.-In general, they treat of notes, musical scales, melodies, the art of singing, and musical instruments; and some of them also of the art of dancing and performing. The melodies, or Râgas, are represented as deities, who have wives, the Ragin'is. Their number is uniform in the different works, and it is probable that the passages in dramas and other poetical works intended for singing were written to suit these fixed melodies, and not that the melodies were composed after the poet had performed his task. The principal works of this kind are the Sangitaratnakara, by Sârngadeva, the Sangitadarpan'a, by Damodara, and the Sangitadamodara, by S'ubhankara. Special treatises relate to the melodies alone. (g.) Amatory Art.-Works treating of this art purport methodically to explain and to classify all that relates to love, and they refer for many of their statements to the oldest authorities, The chief work on this subject is the Kâma-Sutra of Vâtsyâyana. (h.) Astronomy and Arithmetic.-The calendars connected with the Vedas are the earliest evidence of Hindu proficiency in astronomy; they presuppose a knowledge of a solar year of 365 days, and their date is assumed by Colebrooke to belong to the 13th c. B. C., while others would place them a few centuries later. The scientific works of later Hindu astronomers are professedly based on five ancient systems, or Siddhantas, called the Paulis'a-, Romaka-, Vas'isht'ha-, Saura-, and Paitamaha-Siddhanta; and the earliest renowned author among these astronomers is Aryabhat't'a, who, according to 478 His Colebrooke's calculation, did not live later than the 5th c. after Christ. From the quotations by Brahmagupta, it appears that Aryabhatta 'affirmed a diurnal revolution of the earth on its axis, that he possessed the true theory of the causes of lunar and solar eclipses, and that he noticed the motion of the solstitial and equinoctial points, but restricted it to a regular oscillation, of which he assigned the limit and the period.' See, for further detail, Colebrooke's Algebra, &c. (Lond. 1817, p. 38). principal work, the Aryasht'as'ata, is at present only known from the quotations of Brahmagupta, Bhat't'otpala, and others; but his other works, the Das' agîtikâ and Aryabhat't'iya, are extant. Varâhamihira, the next important astronomical writer, a native of Ujjayint, lived about the beginning of the 6th c. after Christ. His compilation of the five Siddhantas, the Panchasiddhantika, is not yet recovered; but several of his astrological treatises, and the scholia on them by Bhat't'otpala or Utpala are preserved, and his Brihatsanhita has been recently edited by Dr H. Kern (Calc. 1865). Another great astronomical authority is Brahmagupta, who appears to have written towards the close of the sixth, or the beginning of the following century; his work bears the title of Brahmasiddhanta, and it was followed up by Bhaskara, who, in the middle of the 12th c., composed a celebrated work, the Siddhantas'iroman'i, translated by Lancelot Wilkinson (Calc. 1861). The Suryasiddhanta has been edited by Fitzedward Hall (Calc. 1859); and two translations of it are due, one to E. Burgess, in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, accompanied with notes by Whitney (New Haven, 1860); another to Bâpûdeva S'astri (Calc. 1861); but whether this Siddhânta is the Saura, one of the five original Siddhântas above mentioned, or a later work bearing a similar title, is matter of doubt. That Hindu astronomy is largely indebted for its progress to the kindred sciences of western nations, may be inferred from the occurrence in Sanscrit of terms which are of Arabic and Greek origin. Thus, the terms hora, dreshkan'a, liptâ, kendra, &c., are easily traced to the Greek hōra, dekanos, lepta, kentron, &c.-That works on Hindu astronomy contain more or fewer chapters or passages which no longer concern astronomy, but belong to the sphere of astrology, can be no matter of surprise, considering the intimate connection in which, in India, religion and superstition stand to every branch of human knowledge, and much more especially to one concerning the heavenly bodies. There are, moreover, numerous works which are purely astrological, merely treating of nativities and the influence of the planets on certain periods of the day or month, and the occurrences that would take place at them. Among celebrated writers on algebra, it must here suffice to name Varâhamihira and Bhaskara. See Colebrooke's Algebra, as quoted above. referred to the god Brahman, from whom the Ayurveda, or 'the science of long life,' was obtained by Daksha, who communicated it in his turn to the As'wins. Some time after this, mankind, in conse quence of their wickedness, becoming afflicted with numerous diseases, the Munis, or saints, met in the Himalaya Mountains to search for a remedy. A long list of these saints is given by Charaka, one of the greatest medical writers, and it is so far of interest as it contains several names known in Hindu history, and which thus may be probably connected with the early study of Hindu medicine. The are still extant are Charaka and Sus'ruta (q. v. two greatest medical authorities the works of whom (i.) Medicine.—The origin of Hindu medicine is |