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SAPPAN WOOD-SARACENS.

as many. The stamens are inserted on the corolla,
fertile ones generally as many as the segments of
the calyx, and generally with alternate sterile ones.
There is no disc. The ovary is superior, with several
cells, each cell with one ovule. The fruit is fleshy;
the seeds nut-like, sometimes cohering; the testa
bony and shining, with a very long, opaque, and
softer scar on the inner face. There are consider-
ably more than two hundred known species, chiefly
natives of the tropics, and the remainder of sub-
tropical countries. One of the most recently dis-
covered species is also already one of the most
important, Isonandra gutta, which produces GUTTA
P'ERCHA (q. v.).—The fruits of some are pleasant, as
the SAPODILLA (q. v.), and other species of the genus
Achras, the STAR APPLE, and other species of
Chrysophyllum (q. v.), different species of Mimu
sops; Imbricaria
Malabarica and I. maxima,
various species of Lucuma, &c. The genus BASSIA
(q. v.) contains species valuable for the oils which
they yield. The seeds of Mimusops elengi also
yield oil abundantly.

SAPPAN WOOD, SAPAN WOOD, or BUKKUM WOOD, the wood of Caesalpinia Sappan (see CASALPINIA), an East Indian tree, about forty feet high, with twice pinnate leaves, and racemes of yellow flowers. The wood is much used as a dyewood, yielding a good red colour, which, however, is not easily fixed. It is a very considerable article of export from Singapore and other ports of that region both to Calcutta and to Europe.

SAPPER, the name given to a private soldier in the corps of Royal Engineers.-The name of the corps was formerly Royal Sappers and Miners. The pay of a sapper is £22, 18. a year, with extra pay when at work; the number of such men for 1865 was 3296. Only men of good character, already adepts in a mechanical trade, are eligible for this service, which is very popular, as an intelligent sapper frequently passes into some situation in civil life for which his practical military training specially fits him. Many sappers are excellent surveyors, photographers, and draughtsmen.

midst of it a star of six bright rays, resulting fromn its crystalline structure.

SAPPHO, along with Alcæus, the chief representative of the Æolian school of lyric poetry, was born either at Mitylene or at Eresos in Lesbos. She was only six years old when she lost her father Scamandronymus. She was contemporary with Alcæus, Stesichorus, and Pittacus, with the first of whom she lived in friendly intercourse, as is seen in the surviving lyrics of both. All that we know of her is contained in an obscure reference in the Parian Marble, and in one of the epistles of Ovid, to her having fled from Mitylene to some place of refuge in Sicily, between 604 and 592. Her famous plunge into the sea from the Leucadian rock, on finding her love for Phaon unrequited, seems to be an invention of later times. At Mitylene, she is supposed to have been the centre of a literary coterie, all of them females, and most of them pupils of her own in the art of poetry. Her moral character has been the subject of controversy in modern times; the most recent disputants being the late Colonel Mure and the well-known F. G. Welcker of Bonn, who, in the Rheinisches Museum (1857— 1858), appeared, the former for the prosecution, To whatever and the latter for the defence. opinion on this subject we may incline, there is no doubt of her high lyrical genius, which was the admiration of antiquity from Solon downwards, and which, as still surviving in her matchless ode to Aphrodite, enhances our regret that of the nine books of her poems, we only possess fragments. The best text is that contained in Bergk's Poeta Lyrici Græci (1854); the best separate edition is Neue's (1827).

SAPUCAIA NUT, the seed of Lecythis ollaria, a lofty tree, which is plentiful in the forests of the north of Brazil, and belongs to the natural order Lecythidaceae. The fruit is urn-shaped, as large as a child's head, and opens by a lid which falls off. Each fruit contains a number of seeds or nuts, as in The flavour is the case of the allied Brazil nut. finer than that of the Brazil nut, although, hitherto, the S. N. is much less common in our shops. Its form is oval, somewhat pointed at both ends, which are slightly bent in opposite directions. Monkeys are very fond of the S. Ñ., and are sometimes caught in consequence of thrusting the hand into a capsule, and not being able to withdraw it when filled with a nut, whilst they obstinately keep hold of the expected prize.

The sarabande is

SA'PPHIRE, a gem excelled in value by no precious stone except diamond, and regarded as a variety of Corundum (q. v.), highly transparent and brilliant. It is sometimes colourless, and the colourless kind, called White S., is sometimes sold as diamond. It more frequently exhibits exquisite colour, generally a bright red or a beautiful blue; more rarely, gray, white, or green. The red variety SA'RABANDE, originally a slow dance, said to is the Orienta Ruby (q. v.) of lapidaries; the blue is that commonly called S., and which has received be of Saracenic origin; and hence a short piece of this name from ancient times. It is found crystal- music, of deliberate character, and with a peculiar lised, usually in six-sided prisms, terminated by six-rhythm, in time, the accent being placed on the sided pyramids; and is sometimes found imbedded second crotchet of each measure. in gneiss; but it more frequently occurs in alluvial of frequent occurrence among the suites or series of soils. It occurs at Bilin in Bohemia, and Expailly and others of the old masters, for the harpsichord short pieces written by Handel, Sebastian Bach, in Auvergne, but more abundantly in some parts of the East. Ceylon is famous both for its rubies and its sapphires, the latter being the more abundant. They occur with garnets and other minerals, in a stratum of water-worn pebbles firmly imbedded in clay, in which there are occasional lumps of granite and gneiss. But nothing has yet been done to seek for them in their original situation in the mountain rocks. A piece of S., which was dug out of the alluvium within a few miles of Ratnapoora in 1853, was valued at upwards of £4000. The S. was one of the stones in the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest. Among the Greeks, it was sacred to Jupiter. The name Girasol S. is given to a beautiful variety with a pinkish or bluish opalescence, and a peculiar play of light. The Chatoyant S. has more pearly reflections. The Asteria S. has in the

or clavichord.

SARACE'NIC ARCHITECTURE. See

ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE.

At a

SA'RACENS, a name variously employed by medieval writers to designate the Mohammedans of Syria and Palestine, the Arabs generally, or the Arab-Berber races of Northern Africa, who conquered Spain and Sicily, and invaded France. later date, it was employed as a synonym for all infidel nations against which crusades were preached, and was thus applied to the Seljuks of Iconium, the Turks, and even to the pagan Prussians. The true derivation of the word was long a puzzle to philologers; Du Cange deduced it from Sarah, the wife of Abraham, an opinion coincided in by the medieval Christian authors; Hottinger (Biblio. Orient.), from

SARACEN'S HEAD-SARAWAK.

the Arab. saraca, te steal; Forster (Journey), from sahra, a desert; while others strove to see its origin in the Hebrew sarak, poor; but the opinion which has been most generally supported, and prevails at the present time, is, that the word was originally Sharkeyn * (Arab. eastern people'), corrupted by the Greeks into Sarakenor, from which the Romans derived their word Saraceni. The epithet Sarakenoi was applied by the Greek writers (from the 1st c. of the Christian era) to some tribes of Bedouin Arabs in Eastern Arabia, though they do not agree among themselves as to the particular tribe so denominated. Pliny and Ammianus place the S. in Arabia Petræa and Mesopotamia, on the common frontier of the Roman and Persian empires; and the description of them by the latter, a most painstaking and accurate historian, coincides, in every important particular, with what is known at the present day of the Bedouin tribes of those regions.

SARACEN'S HEAD, a not unfrequent bearing in Heraldry. It is represented as the head of an old man, with a savage countenance.

SARAGO'SSA. See ZARAGOZA.

soil. Their descendants have become an important section of the population. Cattle-breeding is carried on extensively; fishing is of considerable importance.

SARATOV, a city of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the right bank Though its houses are generally built of timber, of the Volga, 460 miles south-east of Moscow. the town has a rich and picturesque appearance. Its 16 churches are ornamented with numerous towers and cupolas; and its broad streets, from the character of the houses and of the elegant equipages that roll through them, have quite a European appearance. It manufactures pottery, bricks, tobacco, silk, hosiery, &c. Pop. (1866) 85,670.

SARAWA'K, a kingdom on the north-west coast of Borneo, is bounded S. and W. by Sambas, E. by Brunai, and N. by the Bight of Datu. The coast stretches from the west of Cape Datu, in lat. Samerahan, in long. 111° 3' E., a distance of nearly 2° N., and long. 109° 55′ E., to the east of the river 70 miles. Area, 3000 sq. m. Pop. 50,00. The Sarawak is the most important river; it has two navigable mouths, the one entering the Bight of the other, a few miles further to the east. Datu in lat. 1° 42′ 30′′ N., and long. 110° 20′ 30′′ E.;

Other

SARASWATÎ is, in Hindu Mythology, the name of the wife, or the female energy, of the god Brah-considerable rivers are the Rejang (navigable for man, the first of the Hindu Trimurti or triad. She is also the goddess of speech and eloquence, the patroness of music and the arts, and the inventress of the Sanscrit language and the Devanagari letters. She was induced to bestow these benefits on the human race by the sage Bharata, who, through his penance, caused her to descend from heaven, and to divulge her inventions. Hence she is also called Bharati. She was very white, hence another of her names, Mahasweta, or Mahas' uklá (from mahat, great, and s'weta or s'ukla, white).-S. is also the classical name of the river now called Sarsooty, which rises in the mountains bounding the northeast part of Delhi, whence it runs in a south-westerly direction, and is lost in the sands of the great desert in the country of the Bhatti. According to the Hindus, the river only disappears in this place, and continuing its course underground, joins the Ganges

and Jumna at Allahabad.

SARATO'GA SPRINGS, one of the chief watering-places in the U.S., is in New York, 38 miles north of Albany. It contains 23 mineral springs, some chalybeate; some containing iodine, with salts of soda and magnesia; and all highly charged with carbonic acid. They are prescribed in diseases of the liver, chronic dyspepsia, &c. In the village are 25 hotels, some of immense magnitude; and during each season, there are from 25,000 to 35,000 visitors. Pop. in 1860, 7496; in 1870, 8539.

SARATO'V, a government in the south-east of Russia, is bounded on the E. by the river Volga, and on the N. by the governments of Penza and Simbirsk. Area, 31,213 sq. m.; pop. 1,688,561. Its dimensions were much larger prior to the year 1850, when a considerable portion of it-the portion to the east of the Volga-was taken to form a part of the government of Samara (q. v.), erected in that year. One-third of the area is pasture-land, 4th is ander crop, 4th in wood, and 11ths waste land. The chief rivers are the Volga and the Medwieditza. A number of German colonists settled here in 1765 -1775, and distinguished themselves by their persevering industry and by diligent cultivation of the

* Sharkeyn, or Sharakyoun, 'eastern people,' is thus opposed to Magharibé, or Maghribe, western people,' the self-styled appellation of the inhabitants of Maghrib

('the west') or Morocco.

120 miles for vessels of more than 1000 tons), the Lundu, Samerahan, and Sadang. A chain of mountains, 3000 feet in height, rises in S., and, with increasing elevation, tends towards the north; while others are detached, as the Samerahans, and the steep, densely-wooded Lundu. Sandstone and granite are the prevailing rocks; porphyries, basalt, and quartzose schists also occurring. In some parts, the soil is clayey; in others, it is a rich mould. With the exception of some cultivated abound with wild swine, harts, and a variety of spots, the surface is covered with forests, which monkeys. There is excellent coal near the river Sadang. Antimony ore, which can be both easily worked and shipped, is obtainable in any quantity; copper and gold have been found, and iron ore is plentiful at Lūndu. Fine timber trees, as ironwood, ebony, sandal-wood, teak, and other sorts peculiarly adapted for shipbuilding, grow on the lands near the mouths of the rivers. Overtopping them all is the tall Camphor Tree (Dryobalanops aromatica), from which, by incision, the valuable camphor-oil is obtained; or by felling and splitting the wood, the crystallised camphor, which is prized above that produced in any other part of Asia.

The climate is not considered unhealthy. Much rain falls from September to March, and the thermometer usually indicates about 83° F. Edible nests, wax, and aromatic woods are collected by the Dyaks for the Singapore market, and the plains are well adapted for the growth of rice and sago. In 1862, two cargoes of choice timber for shipbuilding were sent to the royal dockyards of Great that natural source of wealth. In 1863, the exports, Britain, and more attention is now being paid to that natural source of wealth. In 1863, the exports, the chief articles of which were gutta percha, sago flour, antimony ore, and edible birds' nests, amounted to £96,609; and the imports, chiefly gray and coloured shirtings, tobacco, brass-ware, opium, rice, and cocoa-nut oil, amounted to £103,689. exportation of antimony and sale of opium are head-tax, form the chief revenue. monopolised by the government, and with a small

The

The original inhabitants are Dyaks, divided into some 20 tribes, and speaking differ: rt dialects; they are, for savages, mild, industrious, and honest. Malays live on the coast, and the mines are worked by Chinese. From 1841 to 1868 S. was governed by

SARCINA-SARDÉS.

Sir James Brooke (q. v.), as an independent rajah development of the sarcina bears to this process, or appointed by the sultan of Borneo, in return for to some stage of it, the same relation which the distinguished services in putting down rebellion development of torule bears to simple alcoholic and restoring order; and even on the testimony of fermentation. The well-known power of sulphurous the Dutch, who view with extreme jealousy the acid in checking the fermentative process, induced increased influence of the British on that coast, his Professor Jenner to try the effect of sulphite of rule did much to promote the civilisation and pros- soda a salt which readily yields its sulphurous perity of his people. acid-in this disease; and experience has fully confirmed the accuracy of Jenner's induction; for this salt, administered soon after a meal, or when the from 10 grains to a drachm, dissolved in water, is the most effectual remedy at present known for relieving this disorder. The hyposulphite of soda, in somewhat larger doses, has a similar

The seat of government is the town of Sarawak, formerly called Kūtjing, near the mouth of the river, which is navigable for large ships. Mission- fermenting process is commencing, in doses varying stations and schools have been erected, and the population has increased to 25,000. Trade, which has multiplied ten-fold since Sir J. Brooke was appointed rajah, is principally carried on with Singapore.

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action.

SARCOLE'MMA is the term applied to the delicate sheath which invests each primary muscular

fibre. See MUSCLE.

SA'RCINA (Lat. a package), or SARCI'NULA, a SA'RCINE (Gr. sarx, gen. sarcos, flesh) is the genus of minute plants of very low organisation, name now given to a nitrogenous substance sometimes reckoned among Algae, and sometimes (CH4N40) which has been obtained from the among Fungi. A number of forms or species are muscular tissue of the horse, ox, and hare; and from known. The first discovered, called S. ventriculi, various glandular organs, as the liver and the spleen was originally observed of the ox, the thymus gland of the calf, and the by Goodsir in matters human liver, in cases of acute atrophy of that organ, vomited from the human in which case it is associated with zanthine stomach. lt is of a (C5H4N4O2), a substance differing from it only by roundish quadrangular two atoms of oxygen. It is identical with the subform, about Toth to stance formerly known as Hypoxanthine. rth of a line in diameter; the individuals generally grouped in cubes of four, sixteen, or sixty-four in the cube, separated by rectangular striæ. Although the most common seat of sarcinæ is the human stomach, they have likewise been detected in the stomach of the tortoise, the rabbit, the dog, the ape, and in the cæcum of the fowl; in the urine, in a considerable number of cases; in the lungs; in the fæces and intestinal canal; in the fluid of the ventricles of the brain; in cholera stools; in the fluid of hydrocele; in the bones; and Dr Lowe has noticed their existence in stagnant water. It appears from the measurements of Welcher that the sarcinæ occurring in urine are about half the size of those occurring in the stomach, and the aggregations of sarcina cells are also smaller.

[graphic]

Sarcina Ventriculi, magni

fied 1000 diameters.

(Copied from the Micrographic Dictionary. Lond., Van Voorst.)

SARCO'MA is a somewhat vague term used by Abernethy and many subsequent surgical writers to designate a fleshy or firm morbid tumour. The term sarcoma is comparatively rarely met with in recent works on surgery.

SARCO'PHAGI. See CANNIBALISM.

SARCO'PHAGUS (Gr. flesh-eater), any stone receptacle for a dead body. The name originated in the property assigned to a species of stone, found at Assos in Troas and used in early times, of consuming the whole body, with the exception of the teeth, within the space of forty days. The oldest known sarcophagi are those of Egypt, some of which are contemporary with the pyramids. The earliest of these are of a square or oblong form, and either plain, or ornamented with lotus leaves; the later are of the form of swathed and Persian kings were also buried in sarcophagi. mummies, and bear inscriptions. The Phoenician The Roman sarcophagi of the earlier republican used in the later republic, although burning had period were plain. Sarcophagi were occasionally become the more general mode of disposing of the dead. The use of stone chests for the interment of distinguished persons has not been altogether dis

continued in modern times.

SARDANAPAʼLUS. See ASSYRIA.

The occurrence of the sarcina in the urine, the fluid of the ventricles of the brain, &c., is probably a post-mortem phenomenon of little diagnostic or pathological importance. Its appearance in vomited Huids is, however, characteristic of a peculiar and important form of dyspepsia. The vomited matter in these cases has a faint acid smell, like that of fermenting wort, and is obviously in a state of fermentation. After standing a few hours, it becomes covered with a thick, brownish, yeast-like froth, and deposits a brown flaky sediment. On examining the froth and the deposit under the microscope, sarcina are found in great abundance, together with the torule characteristic of Yeast (q. v.). The fluid is always acid, if sarcinæ are present. The amount of vomited matter is always large, and sometimes enormous. It is usually ejected in the morning, after a night spent awake from a sense of heat, gurgling, and distention in the epigastric region; and its discharge gives almost immediate relief. Dr SA'RDÉS, or SARDIS, anciently a city of Asia Budd, one of the highest authorities in diseases of Minor, the capital of Lydia, was situated in a fertile the stomach, believes that the disease consists, plain between the northern base of Mount Tmolus primarily and essentially, in some organic change, and the river Hermus, about 60 miles east-northwhich prevents that organ from completely empty-east of Smyrna. Through its agora, or market-place, ing itself, and which causes a secretion from its flowed the Pactolus, a tributary of the Hermus. coats, capable, when mixed with food, of undergoing The city is first mentioned by Eschylus. It or exciting a process of fermentation; and that the was taken by the Cimmerians, in the reign of

SARDE, or SARDA, a variety of quartz, differing from carnelian only in its very deep red colour, blood-red by transmitted light. It is rare, and brings a much higher price than common carnelian. The name is probably from Sardis. The S. was one of the stones of the breastplate of the Jewish highpriest. There were also two in the ephod. The SARDONYX is an Onyx (q. v.) containing layers of sarde.

SARDINE-SARDINIA.

King Ardys (680-631 B. C.). In the reign of Croesus, the last Lydian king, S. attained its highest prosperity. It became the residence of the Persian satraps after the overthrow of the Lydian monarchy. The Athenians burned it 503 B. C., and it afterwards passed under the Romans, and was the seat of a separate provincial government. It is one of the Seven Churches mentioned in the Book of Revelation.-Sart, the modern Sardis, is a poor village, worthy of mention only for the ruins of the ancient city to be seen in the vicinity. Of these, the chief are those of a stadium, of a theatre, and of the Acropolis.

SA'RDINE (Clupea Sardina), a fish of the same genus with the herring and pilchard, smaller than the pilchard; abundant in the Mediterranean, and found also in the Atlantic Ocean, although not so far north as the British shores. It is much esteemed for its flavour, and sardines preserved in oil are exported in large quantities from some of the Mediterranean ports. But the 'sardines' of the west coast of France, which are largely imported into Britain, are generally not true sardines, but young sprats-the garvies of the Firth of Forthand sometimes young herring.

Sardines appear in shoals on the coasts of the Mediterranean at particular seasons, as herrings and pilchards on those of Britain. The S. fishery on the coast of Provence is chiefly in the months of May, June, and July; but the fishery for sprats, which are cured as sardines, and sold under that name on the coast of Bretagne and elsewhere in the west of France, takes place in the winter months. The quantity of both kinds cured is so great as to amount in value to 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 francs annually, about £120,000 to £160,000 sterling. They are exported to the most distant parts of the world; cured with oil in tin boxes, forming a much esteemed delicacy, and, at the same time, a most wholesome article of food. To cure them in this way, they are first carefully washed in the sea, then sprinkled with fine salt; and after a few hours, the head, gills, &c. are removed; they are then washed again, and spread out on willow branches or wirework, exposed to the sun and wind, if the weather is dry, but in damp and rainy weather, to a current of air under cover. They are next put into boiling oil, in which they remain for a short time, and when they are taken out, the oil is drained away from them as much as possible, and they are put into the tin boxes, of which the shape and appearance are so familiar to everyone. The boxes being filled with sardines, are filled up with oil, the lid is soldered on, and they are placed for a short time in boiling-water, or exposed to hot steam. The boxes which have leaked or have burst in boiling are rejected, and those which remain sound are now ready for the market.

In the south of France, sardines are sometimes cured in red wine, and those so cured are called Sardines Anchoisées, or Anchovied Sardines.

There seems to be no good reason why the sprats of the British coast should not be cured in oil, like those of the west coast of France, and so prove a LIW source of wealth, besides probably being bright at a lower price to the market, to the advantage of those for whom sardines are at present too expensive.

Several species of small Clupeidae, much resembling the S., are found in different parts of the world, and are used in the same way as the S. of the Mediterranean. One species frequents the southern and eastern coast of Ceylon in such vast shoals, that 400,000 have been taken at a single haul of the nets in a little bay; and when the shoal approached the shore, the broken water became as

smooth as if a sheet of ice had been floating below the surface.

SARDI'NIA, KINGDOM OF, a former kingdom of Italy, and the nucleus of the present Kingdom of Italy, included the duchies of Savoy and Genoa, and parts of those of Montferrat and Milan, the principality of Piedmont, the county of Nice, and the islands of Sardinia and Caprera, amounting in all to 19,564 English sq. m. of continental territory, with a pop. of (1857) 4,590,260, and 9205 of insular territory, with a pop. of 577,282; total area 28,769 English sq. m., pop. 5,167,542. In 1859, it was increased by the addition of the Austrian por tion of the Milanese, and diminished by the cession in 1860 of Savoy and Nice to France, the change in the continental territory being shewn by the following figures: area, 21,099 English sq. m.; pop. (1858) 6,530,232; the insular territory remaining unaltered. The various districts above mentioned differ greatly from each other in physical configuration and climate, and the more important of these are treated in separate articles. See also ITALY. The Roman Catholic religion was established by law in March 1848; but monastic orders, with the exception of those which are also benevolent institutions, were suppressed May 28, 1855. In 1859, the army amounted to 76,172 men, and the fleet to 29 ships (none of them men-of-war), with 436 guns; the revenue (1858), which was mostly derived from customs, duties, and direct taxation, to £5,799,301; and the expenditure to £5,949,902-a want of equilibrium in the finances which had long existed, and which caused the establishment, since 1819, of a gradually increasing national debt, that amounted (1858) to £27,080,810. The annual import trade amounted (1857) to a declared value of £19,123,054, and the exports to £14,605,043.

The kingdom of S. was originated by a treaty (24th August 1720) between Austria and the Duke of Savoy (q. v.), by which the latter agreed to surrender Sicily to the former on condition of receiving in exchange the island of Sardinia, and the erection of his states into a kingdom. In 1730, VictorAmadeus I., the last Duke of Savoy and first king of S., resigned the throne to his son, Charles-Emmanuel I. (1730-1773); but repenting his resolution, and attempting to resume the government, he was put in prison, where he died in 1732. His son, by joining with France and Spain against Austria, obtained (1735) the territories of Tortona and Novara, to which were further added (1743), during the war of the Austrian Succession, the county of Anghiera, and the territories of Vigevano and Pavia. He was the author of the code known as the Corpus Carolinum. His successor, Victor-Amadeus II. (1773-1796), acceded to the European coalition against France, and was deprived in consequence of Savoy and Nice in 1792; but sustained by England and the pope, he raised an army, and maintained himself in his kingdom till 1796, when Bonaparte forced him formally to relinquish the territories he had lost. His son, Charles-Emmanuel II. (1796-1802), was at first an ally of France; but the Direc tory, in 1798, compelled him to surrender all his continental possessions, which were then incorporated with France; and it was not till the first peace of Paris (May 30, 1814) that the House of Savoy regained its territories. The Congress of Vienna (December 1814) annexed to S. the ancient republic of Genoa, and the second peace of Paris (1815) restored a small portion of Savoy, which France still possessed, and gave the king a protectorate over the small principality of Monaco. Long before this time, Charles-Emmanuel had abdicated, and his brother, Victor-Emmanuel I. (1802—1821), succeeded to his rights, and made his entry into

SARDINIA.

Soil and Climate.-Between the mountain ranges are several wide valleys of remarkable beauty and fertility. There are also several large sandy or stony districts (macchie), of almost irremediable sterility. The mountain sides are partly rocky and barren, partly clad with woods, and partly fitted for pasture. The climate is mild, the temperature ranging from 34° to 90°; but in the low lands, which are largely of a marshy character, and in the neighbourhood of the littoral lakes, a deadly malaria (intemperie) prevails, especially in autumn. The inhabitants of those districts, who can afford to do so, migrate annually during the unhealthy season; and those who are compelled to remain never leave their houses till an hour after sunrise, and carefully return before sunset, taking all precautions to prevent the entrance of the poisonous gas by door or window. The inhaling of the miasma by a stranger is considered among the inhabitants to be as deadly as a dose of strong poison.

Turin, 20th May, 1814. His return restored the The country is mostly mountainous, some of the ancient misgovernment; and similar political changes peaks of the central chain having an elevation in the other Italian states revived the societies of of 6300 feet. The Limbara range, in the norththe Carbonari' (q. v.) and other similar secret west, is granite, the diagonal chain palæozoic, associations, whose aims were supported by a and the central range of the tertiary calcareous portion of the nobility and army, and by the heir- formation; many of the peaks, especially within the presumptive to the throne, Charles-Albert, Prince semicircle formed by the Limbara range, are extinct of Savoy-Carignan. The insurrection of the army volcanoes. The coasts are generally steep and on the 9th and 10th of March 1821, brought on a rugged. A few islands lie off the coast, and all, of general revolution. But the king having abdicated any considerable size and importance, are situated in favour of his brother, Charles-Felix (1821-1831), at the corners; off the north-east corner are the and the Austrians having come to the rescue, the Maddalena group, consisting of Maddalena, Capi era, insurrection was put down. Under the protection and five or six minute islets; off the north-west of an Austrian army of occupation till 1823, corner is Asinara; and off the south-west corner are Charles-Felix re-established absolute power, re- San Pietro and San Antioco. The island is well called the Jesuits, persecuted the Protestants, and supplied with streams, but none of them have a lag took various other measures for rooting out all course, and only one is partially navigable. opposition. On his death, the elder line of Savoy became extinct, and the succession fell to the cadet branch of Savoy-Carignan (see SAVOY, HOUSE OF), whose rights had been recognised by the Congress of Vienna, and Charles-Albert (q. v.) (1831-1849) ascended the throne. The liberals were gratified with some slight reforms, but the power of the clergy was untouched, and the conspiracy of 30th November 1833 at Turin, and the mad inroad of Mazzini, at the head of a small band of German, Polish, and Italian refugees, in February 1834, only disturbed the country, and confirmed the government in its despotic policy. The interior administration was, however, carried on with more energy than under the two previcus reigns, through the conclusion of treaties with France, Britain, Turkey, the Low Countries, Denmark, Austria, and the Hanse Towns, &c.; the construction of roads, bridges, and railways was vigorously prosecuted, and agriculture and other industries were encouraged. In 1842, the king commenced a gradual but progressive liberal policy, promulgated a limited act of amnesty to political offenders, relaxed the severity of censorship, reformed judicial administration and prison discipline, and abolished the feudal system in Sardinia. The kingdom participated in the agitations of 1846 and 1847, which affected the whole peninsula, but was wholly exempt from insurrections and conspiracies, the people contenting themselves with expressing their views and wishes in petitions and demonstrations displaying entire confidence in the government. On February 8, 1848, the king announced a new and extremely liberal constitution, which was proclaimed some weeks afterwards; a liberal law of election was decreed, the first Sardinian parliament convoked for the 17th April, and the act of amnesty declared general. In the midst of these changes, the revolution broke out, and Charles-Albert put himself at the head of the movement, and declared war against Austria. (See ITALY, RADETSKY, &c.) After the rout of Novara (13th March, 1849), he resigned the throne to his son, Victor-Emmanuel II. (q. v.), who has succeeded in uniting Italy into one kingdom. By the treaty of Villafranca, July 11, 1859, and peace of Zurich, November 10, 1859, Victor Emmanuel obtained Western Lombardy, part of the Papal States, Parma, and Modena, and by the treaty of Prague, August 23, 1866, the remainder of Lombardy with Venetia, and on October 9, 1870, the remaining portion of the Papal States was annexed to the kingdom by royal decree. SARDI'NIA, ISLAND OF, the largest, after Sicily, of the islands of the Mediterranean, lies directly south of Corsica, from which it is separated by the Strait of Bonifacio, a channel only 7 miles wide in its narrowest part. S. is situated about halfway between Central Italy and Africa, and between Southern Italy and Spain. Its length is 166 miles; greatest breadth 90 miles; and area 9205 sq. miles.

Products.-Wheat, barley, maize, oranges, and other fruits are produced in abundance, and are esteemed for their excellent quality. The vine is extensively cultivated, but, from carelessness in the process, the wine is not so good as might naturally be expected. The olive-grounds are extensive, and the produce excellent. Tobacco (of inferior quality), cotton, linseed, flax, hemp, saffron, and madder are also produced. The woods which clothe the mountain sides are chiefly composed of cork, chestnut, oak, pine, and other timber trees, which form a considerable item in the export trade. Many mountainslopes have, however, been much deteriorated in fertility by the excessive cutting down of timber.

The bullock is the favourite animal for draught, but horses are also used; and a small species of pony, which in ancient times was much esteemed by the Roman matrons, is still found. The sheep are of ordinary quality, and the swine are said to be among the best in Europe. Few cows are kept, and cheese is obtained almost wholly from sheep's and goat's milk. Wild boars and deer are not uncommon, and the Moufflon (q. v.) is found in the Alpine woods. Foxes, rabbits, hares, and martens are so abundant that a large export trade in their skins is carried on. The fisheries are important.

Manufactures are insignificant, being mostly the result of home industry; but the royal manufactories of gunpowder, salt, and tobacco are of considerable importance. S. is rich in minerals, but these, like its other resources, are as yet little developed ; silver, mercury, granite, gypsum, marble, alabaster, amethyst, and other precious stones, are found; and lead, iron, and copper are in considerable abundance. Gold, bismuth, and antimony are said to exist.

Inhabitants.-The inhabitants bear a considerable resemblance to the Greeks, and speak a barbarous dialect, composed chiefly of Spanish, Arabic, and Italian; they are ignorant and bigoted, having

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