SCHEMNITZ-SCHILLER. ants. The academy for mining and woodcraft, | SCHERZO (Ital. jest, sport), in Music. A term applied to a passage or movement of a lively and sportive character, forming part of a musical composition of some length, as a symphony, quartett, or sonata. the last 14 of which he occupied the chair of philo- with its six suburbs, some of which, however, are at sophy in the newly-established university of Munich, a distance of several miles, it has a population of but in 1841 he followed a call from Friedrich-Wilhelm 22,000; but the town proper has only 8500 inhabitIV. to Berlin, where he mainly resided for the rest of his life. He died at the baths of Ragaz, in Switzerland, August 20, 1854. We now revert to S.'s philosophical career. What may be regarded as its third period, if not its third phase, is chiefly marked by incessant controversy. With the exception of Bruno, oder über das Göttliche und Natürliche Princip der Dinge (Bruno, a Dialogue concerning the Divine and Natural Principle of Things, Berl. 1802), and the Vorlesungen über die Methode des Akademischen Studiums (Lectures on the Method of Academical Study, Stuttg. and Tüb. 1803), most of S.'s writings are polemical-often hotly so. The most notable are, his Philosophie und Religion (Tüb. 1804), in reply to Eschenmayer; Denkmal der Schrift von den Göttlichen Dingen (Tüb. 1812), in reply to Jacobi; and Darlegung des Wahren Verhältnisses der Naturphilosophie zur verbesserten Fichte' schen Lehre (Statement of the true relation of the Nature-philosophy to the improved Fichtian Doctrine, Tüb. 1806). Meanwhile, a most formidable adversary had risen up in his old college-friend, Hegel (q. v.), who was at first an ardent disciple of S.'s, just as Schelling had been of Fichte, but who had, in a similar manner, broken away, and was now pursuing an independent, and professedly antagonistic, course of speculation. During the reign of Hegelianism, S. preserved an almost unbroken silence. For more than 20 years he published almost nothing, but we know that he was far from being idle. He was observing narrowly the practical as well as the speculative results of the rival system, and maturing his own philosophy for the final phase which it assumed, and which he called variously, the 'positive,' the historical,' and the system of Freedom'-the design of which was to interpret, at once philosophically and reverentially, the history, and, especially, the religious history of mankind. admitted that his earlier speculations, though sound in themselves, attained only to 'negative' truth, and to shew that the most transcendental metaphysician need not be a Pantheist, but might be a believer in a Personal God, or even in a Trinity, with a whole Augsburg Confession to boot, he began to apply or develop in a practical way what he conceived to be the principles of his system. It cannot be said that the result has proved satisfactory, though many of his contemporaries thought it would-Neander, for example, dedicating to him, in the most eulogistic SCHIEDA'M (pron. Skeedam'), a town in South terms, the first volume of his Kirchengeschichte, on Holland, four miles west of Rotterdam, situated the ground that it was in harmony with S.'s new on the Schie, which, by a broad canal or haven, philosophy. The writings that contain the fruits of is connected with the Maas. Pop. in 1868, 19,325. S.'s latest thinking were for the most part pos- The streets are generally narrow, irregularly built, thumously published, although a general idea of them and, compared with other Dutch towns, have a had become known to the public through such dirty appearance, from the smoky distilleries, maltlectures as those on the Philosophy of Mythology, and ing-works, and grain-mills. It is a town so the Philosophy of Revelation. S.'s Sämmtliche Werke much engaged in manufacturing gin, and the pre(14 vols., Stuttg. 1856-1861) were edited by his paratory processes, that the air and water smell sons, Karl Friedr. Aug. and Hermann Schelling. and taste of it. In 1863, there were 236 distilHis Correspondence was published at Munich in leries; 74 works for preparing malt, &c., and 20 1863. Various French writers, such as MM. Matter, cooperages. The neighbouring meadows are rich in Remusat, Cousin, Michelet, have tried (with indiffer- cattle, which are partly fed from the refuse of the ent success) to explain the great mystic to their distilleries. Grain is largely imported from Russia, countrymen; and English philosophical literature is Sweden, and Denmark. In 1863, 5514 inland dubiously associated with his name, through what vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 115,202, and may be called the somnambular plagiarisms of a 552 sea-going ships, entered the haven. Nearly kindred genius, Samuel Taylor Coleridge. These two-thirds of the population belong to the Prowere first pointed out by Professor Ferrier in Black-testant churches; the remainder, except 30 Jews, wood's Magazine, March, 1840. are Roman Catholics. S. It SCHE'VENINGEN (pron. Skaveningen), a populous and thriving village in South Holland, is situated on the coast of the North Sea, about two miles from the Hague. Pop. nearly 8000. Fishing is the chief industry; ship-building, rope-spinning, and making sailcloth, being also carried on. is the most fashionable sea-bathing resort in the Netherlands, and is visited by many distinguished strangers, there being an excellent Bath House,' In the neighbourhood, are and other hotels. summer residences of the royal family and nobility. A range of sand hills defends the village from the sea, which has, nevertheless, made so great encroachments that the Protestant church, originally built in the centre of the houses, is now close by the strand. The road from the Hague to S. is a long avenue of fine trees and wooded banks. In 1864, a tramway for passengers and goods was opened. SCHEMNITZ, the largest and most famous SCHILLER, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH mining town of Hungary, stands in a narrow moun- VON, one of the greatest poetical geniuses of Gertain gorge, at the height of 1054 feet, on a river of many, was born at Marbach, a little town of Würtemthe same name, 70 miles north of Pesth. Together | berg, on November 11, 1759. His father, Joh. Kaspar SCHINKEL-SCHINUS. Schiller, was overseer of the nurseries attached to a and stormful imagination was gradually becoming. country-seat of the Duke of Würtemberg. S. received Reinhold of Jena introduced him to the Kantian his first formal instruction from the parish priest philosophy, and for some little time S. was in danger Moser, at Lorch; and in 1773, the duke, who had of lapsing from a poet into a metaphysician. The formed a favourable opinion both of S. and his philosophical and æsthetic treatises springing out of father, offered to educate the boy, free of expense, this new study were collected and published under at the military academy founded by him at the castle the title of Kleine prosaischen Schriften (4 vols., of Solitude, and afterwards transferred to Stuttgart Jena, 1792-1802). His Geschichte des Dreissigunder the name of Karls-schule. The offer was jährigen Kriegs (History of the Thirty Years' accepted, and entering the rigorous academy, S. tried War) originally appeared in the Taschenkalender to devote himself to jurisprudence. His success in für Damen (1790-1793). On the occasion of the the new study was sinall, and after two years, he poet's marriage in 1790 with Charlotte von Lengeexchanged it for medicine. But literature, especially fold, the Duke of Meiningen made him a Hofrath poetry, was the secret idol of his soul, and its chief (privy-councillor); the French Republic also condelight. Already the characteristics of his genius ferred on him the right of citizenship; and in 1802, -his tendencies towards epic and dramatic idealism the emperor raised him to the rank of nobility. --were shewing themselves in his predilections. His While staying for a year with his relatives in first literary attempts of any moment were dramatic Würtemberg, he wrote his exquisite Briefe über -Der Student von Nassau and Cosmus von Medici ästhetische Erziehung (Letters on Esthetic Cul-which were consigned (doubtless not without ture). This period, reaching to the close of 1794, reason) to the fire. Meanwhile, the poet's general is generally regarded as S.'s transition period; in intellectual culture and his professional studies went poetic accomplishment, it is not rich, but in earnest, steadily on; and in 1780, he passed as a military thoughtful, and manifold speculation it was highly surgeon, but with no liking for such a career. In important to the poet, and we find that it prepared 1778, S. completed the first sketch of his memor- the way for the last and most splendid development able drama, Die Räuber (The Robbers), the publi- of his genius. After 1795, the finest of his lyrics cation of which, in 1780, excited the most violent and dramas were produced-as Der Spaziergang enthusiasm among the young all over Germany, and the Lied der Glocke (Song of the Bell) in 1796, so wild, and strong, and glowing were the passion Wallenstein (1799), Maria Stuart (1800), Die Jungand fancy displayed in it. Respectable people, frau von Orléans (1801), Braut von Messina (Bride dignitaries, functionaries, and the like, were, of of Messina, 1803), and finally his greatest drama, course, deeply scandalised; and the duke himself, Wilhelm Tell (1804). But his health had been long a 'Serene Highness' sort of man, was induced to giving way, partly owing to a natural weakness of lecture the poet on his delinquency, and forbade him constitution, and partly to incessant application to to write any more poetry without submitting it to study; and on May 9, 1805, he expired, at the early his inspection!' In 1782, The Robbers was brought age of 46. Ever since his death, the fame of S. has upon the stage at Mannheim-the poet being present been on the increase; he has long been recognised without the knowledge of his superiors, the result as, next to Goethe, the greatest poet that Germany of which was arrest for a fortnight! This led to has produced, and innumerable editions of his works further complications; and finally, in October of the in whole or part have been published. The best same year, S. fled from the harsh service of the account of him and his works is given by Carlyle duke into Franconia, and lived for a year under a in his Life of Friedrich Schiller (Lond. 1825). feigned name at Bauerbach, near Meiningen, where he completed his Fiesco and Cabale und Liebe, begun at Stuttgart. Don Carlos was also sketched in outline here. In September 1783, he went back to Mannheim, and was for some time closely connected with actors and theatrical life. To this period belong several of his lesser poems. With the Cabale und Liebe above mentioned ended the first poetic period in S.'s career, otherwise known as the Sturm und Drang period, in which a burning energy of passion and a robust extravagance, passing often into sheer bombast of speech, are the predominant characteristics. In March 1785, S. left Mannheim, and proceeded to Leipzig, where he became acquainted, among others, with Huber and Körner, and wrote his beautiful Lied an die Freude; thence, after a few months, he went to Dresden, where he began the practice of composing during the night, which so fatally assisted in shortening his life. Der Geisterscher (The Ghost-seer), a strikingly powerful romance, was written here; and the drama of Don Carlos was completed. In 1787, he was invited to Weimar, and was at once warmly received by Herder and Wieland; but some years elapsed before Goethe and he could understand one another; after that, they became the closest friends. Henceforth, S. owed more to Goethe than to all other men: we may even call the SCHI'NUS, a genus of trees and shrubs of the later and best writings of S. inspirations of Goethe. natural order Anacardiaceae, natives of South Ame The study of the spirit and literature of antiquity rica. The leaves so abound in a resinous or turpenin particular exercised a wholesome influence tine-like fluid, that upon the least swelling of the over him, and in his Götter Griechenlands (Gods of other portions of the leaf by moisture, it is discharged Greece), which belongs to this stage, we see from the sacs which contain it. Thus they fill the how calm, and clear, and sunny his once turbid air with fragrance after rain, or if thrown into water, tect of great celebrity in his own country, was SCHINKEL, KARL FRIEDR., a German archiborn at Neuruppin, March 13, 1781, and studied the principles of drawing and design at Berlin under Professor Gilly. In 1803, he went to Italy to extend his professional knowledge; but on his affairs so threatening that he could obtain little return in 1805, he found the aspect of public employment, and was forced to betake himself to landscape-painting. In May 1811, he was elected a member of, and in 1820 a professor at, the Berlin Academy of Arts. Other offices and honours were also conferred on him. He died October 9, were also conferred on him. He died October 9, 1841. The designs to which he chiefly owes his reputation are those of the Royal Guard-house, the Memorial of the War of Liberation, the New Theatre, the New Potsdam Gate, the Artillery and Engineers' School, in Berlin; the Casino, in Potsdam; another in the gardens of Prince Karl at Blienike, near Potsdam; and a great number of castles, countryhouses, churches, and public buildings. S. was a man of powerful and original genius; his designs are remarkable for the unity of idea by which they are pervaded, and the vigour, beauty, and harmony of their details.-See Kugler's Karl Friedr. Schinkel (Berl. 1842). SCHISM-SCHLEGEL. Мивеп start and jump about as if alive, discharging jets of first began to assume a prominent position in this peculiar fluid. The same phenomenon is exhib- literature, while a lecturer at Jena, contributing ited by the leaves of some species of the kindred assiduously to Schiller's Horen and genus Duvaua, of which specimens are occasionally to be seen in our greenhouses. The leaves and twigs when bruised have a very strong odour of turpentine. SCHISM, GREEK, the separation between the Greek and Latin churches, which originated in the 9th, and was completed in the 12th century. See GREEK CHURCH. Almanach, and to the Allgemeine Literaturzeitung. About the same time, his translation of Shakspeare began to appear (9 vols. Berl. 1797-1810), the influence of which on German poetry and Subsethe German stage was equally great. quently, the poet Tieck, with S.'s consent, undertook a revision of the work, together with a translation of such pieces as S. had omitted (12 vols. Berl. 1825, 1839, 1843); and from their SCHISM, WESTERN, a celebrated disruption of conjoint labours, the people of Germany are able to communion in the Western Church, which arose form a faithful idea of the surpassing genius of our out of a disputed claim to the succession to the countryman. S. also delivered at Jena a series of papal throne. On the death_of Gregory XI. in lectures on æsthetics, and along with his brother, 1378, a Neapolitan, Bartolomeo Prignano, was chosen Friedrich, edited the Athenaeum (3 vols. Berl. 1796pope by the majority of the cardinals in a conclave 1800), which in spite of, perhaps because of, the at Rome under the name Urban VI. Soon after severity of its criticism, gave a lively and wholewards, however, a number of these cardinals with- some impulse to the poetry of its time. He pubdrew, revoked the election, which they declared not lished, besides, his first volume of poems (Gedichte, to have been free, owing to the violence of the Tüb. 1800); and, again in company with his factions in Rome by which the conclave had, brother, the Charakteristiken und Kritiken (2 vols. according to them, been overawed; and, in conse- Königsb. 1801). In 1802, S. left Jena for Berlin, quence, they proceeded to choose another pope under where he gave a second series of lectures on literathe name Clement VII. The latter fixed his see at ture, art, and the spirit of the time. Next year Avignon, while Urban VI. lived at Rome. Each appeared his Ion, an antique tragedy of considerparty had its adherents, and in each a rival succes-able merit. It was followed by his Span. Theater sion was maintained down to the council of Pisa in 1410, in which assembly both were deposed, and a third pope, John XXIII., was elected. This measure not having been acquiesced in by all, a new council was convened at Constance in 1417, in which not alone the former rivals, but even the new pontiff elected, by consent of the two parties, at Pisa, were set aside, and Otho Colonna was elected under the name of Martin V. In this election the whole body may be said to have acquiesced; but one of the claimants, Peter de Luna, called Benedict XIII., remained obstinate in the assertion of his right till his death in 1424. The schism, however, may be said to have terminated in 1417, having thus endured nearly 40 years. SCHI'SMA, the name given to one of the very small intervals known in the theory of music, which amounts to the difference between the Comma ditonicum and Comma syntonicum. See COMMA. SCHIST (Gr. schistos, split) is a term applied somewhat loosely to indurated clays, as bituminous schist and mica schist. It is more correctly confined to the metamorphic strata, which consist of plates of different minerals, as mica schist, made up of layers of quartz separated by laminae of mica; chlorite schist, a green rock in which the layers of chlorite are separated by plates of granite or felspar; and hornblende schist, a black rock composed of layers of hornblende and felspar, with a little quartz. SCHLANGENBAD, one of the most distinguished spas of Germany, on the northern frontier of the Rheingau district, 6 miles west of Wiesbaden, in a beautiful and secluded situation, embosomed amid wooded hills. The water of the baths has a temperature of 80° F., and contains the muriates and carbonates of lime, soda, and magnesia, with a slight excess of carbonic acid. The baths have a marvellous effect in beautifying the skin, and in soothing and tranquillising. The village is itself very small, and in the height of the season the pop. is only about 1000. SCHLEGEL, AUGUST WILHELM VON, a distinguished critic, poet, and scholar, was born at Hanover, 8th September 1767, and studied at Göttingen, where he acquired a reputation by his devotion to philological and classical studies. He (2 vols. Berlin, 1803-1809), consisting of five He one of the first students of Sanscrit in SCHLEGEL, KARL WILHELM FRIEDRICH VON, distinguished both for his scholarship and intellectual ability, was a brother of the preceding, and was born at Hanover, 10th March 1772. He SCHLEGEL-SCHLEIERMACHER. studied at Göttingen and Leipzig, and in 1797, published his first work, Griechen und Römer (The Greeks and Romans), which won praise from old Heyne. It was followed in the course of a year by his Geschichte der Poesie der Griechen und Römer (History of Greek and Roman Poetry), a sort of fragmentary continuation of the former. Both of these productions bore evidence of rich learning, independent thought, and a thorough appreciation of the principles and method of historic criticism; but the chief vehicle at this time for the dissemination of his philosophical views of literature was the sharp-fanged periodical called the Athenaeum, edited by himself and his brother, August Wilhelm. Proceeding to Jena, he started there as a privat-docent, holding lectures on philosophy, which met with great applause, and still editing the Athenaeum, to which he also began to contribute poems of a superior quality, and in the most diverse metres. In 1802, appeared his Alarkos, a tragedy, in which the antique-classical and new-romantic elements are singularly blended. From Jena, he soon went to Dresden, and thence to Paris, where he gave a few more of those philosophical prelections, in the manufacture of which both he and August Wilhelm were unhappily much too expert; edited the Europa, a monthly journal (2 vols. Frankf. 1803-1805); and applied himself assiduously to the languages of Southern Europe, and still more assiduously to Sanscrit, the fruits of which were seen in his treatise, Ueber die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier (Heidelb. 1808). See PHILOLOGY. During his residence in Parts, he also published a Sammlung Romantischer Dichtungen des Mittelalters (Collection of Medieval Romantic Poems, 2 vols. Par. 1804), and the piouschivalric romance of Lother und Maller (Berl. 1805). On his return to Germany, he published a volume of dithyrambic and elegiac poems (Gedichte, Berl. 1809). At Cologne, he passed over to the Roman Catholic Church, a change to which his medieval studies powerfully contributed, and which, in its turn, no less powerfully affected his future literary career. In 1808, S. went to Vienna, where, in 1811, appeared his Ueber die neuere Geschichte (Lectures on Modern History), and in 1815, his Geschichte der alten und neuen Literatur (History of Ancient and Modern Literature). In 1822, a collected edition of his writings, in 12 vols. (Sämmtliche Werke), was published by himself. Subsequently, he delivered two series of lectures, one on the Philosophy of Life (Philosophie des Lebens, Vienna, 1828), and another on the Philosophy of History (Philosophie der Geschichte, Vienna, 1829), both of which are well known in England and other countries through the medium of translations. S. died 12th January 1829. His MSS. were published by his friend Windischmann (2 vols. Bonn, 1836— 1837). (Discourses on Religion, Berl. 1799), which startled Germany from its spiritual torpor, vindicated the eternal necessity of religion, and sought to separate those elements of it that are essentially divine from the incrustations of dogma and the formalities of practice. Neander looked upon these Reden as making the turning-point in his spiritual career. They are now regarded as both making and marking an epoch in the theological history of Germany. The Reden were followed by the Monologen, and the Briefe eines Predigers ausserhalb Berlin in 1800. Two years later, he was appointed preacher at the Charity-house in the Prussian capital; and during 1804-1810, produced his famous translation of Plato, with commentary, which is considered in Germany, to this day, the most profound and penetrating treatise on the philosophy of the great Athenian, though English scholars are disposed to regard its criticism as decidedly too subjective, and in many important respects baseless. In 1801 appeared the first collection of his Predigten (Sermons), followed between 1808-1833 by no fewer than six other collections. They are masterpieces of penetrating and eloquent discussion, appealing equally to the heart and the intellect of hearers and readers. In 1802, S. went as court-preacher to Stolpe, where he published his Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre; and in 1804, was called to Halle as University-preacher and Professor of Theology and Philosophy. In 1807, he returned to Berlin, having previously published _Die Weihnachtsfeier, ein Gespräch (Christmas Festival, a Dialogue, Halle, 1806), bearing on the calamitous state in which Germany then found herself, owing to the victorious insolence of the French. Among his next publications may be mentioned Ueber den sogenannten ersten Brief des Paulus an den Timotheus (Concerning the so-called first Epistle of Paul to Timothy, Berl. 1807). In 1809, he became pastor of Trinity Church, Berlin; and in 1810, when the university of Berlin was reopened, with a brilliant array of professors, under the rectorship of Fichte, no name shone more conspicuous than that of Schleiermacher. In 1811, he was chosen a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, in whose Transactions are to be found many valuable papers by S. on the ancient philosophy; and in 1814, secretary of the philosophical section. In 1817, he was appointed president of the synod assembled in Berlin. His latest, and perhaps his most important work is Der Christliche Glaube nach den Grundsätzen der Evang. Kirche im Zusammenhange dargestellt (The Christian Faith systematically presented according to the fundamental Propositions of the Evangelical Church, 2 vols. Berl. 1821-1822), in which his deepest and most Christian thought is visible. He died at Berlin, 12th February 1834. The list of S.'s disciples-i. e., of men who have SCHLEIERMACHER, FRIEDRICH ERNST derived the groundwork of their principles from DANIEL, one of the greatest and most influential him-is one of the most splendid that any theoltheologians of modern times, was born at Breslau, ogical reformer could shew, embracing, among 21st November 1768. His boyish years were spent others, the names of Neander, Nitzsch, Twesten, in the school kept by the Moravian brotherhood at Olshausen, Lucke, Bleek, and Ullmann. In 1864, Niesky, and here he first received those religious appeared a posthumous work of S., Das Leben impressions the influence of which was visible in his Jesu, Vorlesungen an der Universität zu Berlin im whole after-life. In 1787, he proceeded to the Jahr 1832, in which he conceives of Jesus, as a university of Halle; and on the conclusion of his man in whom the divine spirit works as perfectly academic course, acted for some time as a teacher; as it possibly can in humanity, and treats his but in 1794 became assistant-clergyman at Lands- history accordingly. Strauss has replied in a critique berg-on-the-Warthe, where he remained for two (Berl. and Lond. 1865). S. was very far from what years. He then went to Berlin, and occupied himself in England is called orthodox, but he was a great, partly in the translation of some of Blair's and earnest, devout Christian man, of massive underFawcett's Sermons, and in the redaction of the standing, and whose eloquence was scarcely less Athenæum, conducted by his friend Friedrich golden than that of Plato himself. Germany overSchlegel; but the first work that won for him flows with literature on S., his system, and his general celebrity was his Reden über die Religion | ideas.-For an account of his earlier life, see the 537 SCHLESTADT-SCHOLASTICS. autobiographical sketch first published in Niedner's Zeitschrift für historische Theologie (1851); and for his later life, Aus Schleiermacher's Leben in Briefen (2 vols. Berl. 1858; translated into English by Frederica Rowan, 2 vols. Lond. 1860). SCHLESWICK. See SLESVIG. Schärtlin forced his way to the banks of the Danube, but the miserable jealousy of the Saxon princes paralysed his action. The emperor, by a proclamation bearing date 20th July 1546, put the two chiefs of the league under the ban SCHLE ́STADT, a fortified town of Alsace, in the of the empire; Maurice, Duke of Saxony, took former French department of Bas-Rhin, stands on possession of the electorate, by virtue of an imperial the left bank of the Ill, and in the midst of a fruitful decree; and the Protestant army was forced to district, 28 miles south of Strasburg, on the Stras-retreat. The Elector of Saxony reconquered his burg and Basel Railway. Pottery has long been electorate in the autumn of 1546, but meantime the manufactured here. Pop. 10,040. imperial army subdued the northern members of the League of S., and advanced into Franconia to meet the combined armies of Saxony and Hesse. The SCHLOSSER, FRIEDR. CHRISTOPH, a distin- latter were totally routed at Mühlberg (24th April guished German historian, was born at Jever, 17th 1547), and both chiefs fell into the emperor's hands. November 1776, educated at Göttingen, and after This defeat, which has been ascribed to treason, and spending many years as a private tutor and was perhaps as much owing to this cause as to academic teacher, he was, in 1817, called to Heidel- weakness, finished the war. The object of the berg as a Professor of History, where he died, Sep; league, the guarantee of the liberty of religion to tember 23, 1861. His principal writings (arranged the Protestants, was subsequently effected by in the order of time) are Abalard und Dulcin Maurice, now Elector of Saxony, who, by a brilliant (Gotha, 1807); Leben Beza's und des Peter Martyr feat of diplomacy and generalship, compelled the Vermili (Heidelb. 1809); Geschichte der Bilderstürm-emperor to grant the treaty of Passau (31st July enden Kaiser des Oeström. Reichs (Frankf. 1812); 1552), by which this freedom was secured. Weltgeschichte in Zusammenhängender Erzählung (Frankf. 1817-1824); Geschichte des 18 Jahrh. (Heidelb. 1823); Universalhistorische Uebersicht der Geschichte der Alten Welt und ihrer Cultur (Frankf. 1826-1834); Weltgeschichte für das Deutsche Volk (1844-1853); and Studien über Dante (1856). Of these works, the most notable are the Geschichte des 18 Jahrh., continued by S. in the later editions till the fall of Napoleon, and the Weltgeschichte für das Deutsche Volk, which have been translated into English and other tongues. S. is a keen, critical, and powerful writer, who judges men and events by a stern ethical standard. SCHMALKALD, LEAGUE OF, the name given to the defensive alliance concluded provisionally for nine years at Schmalkalden (q. v.), 27th February 1531, between nine Protestant princes and eleven imperial cities, with whom other five princes and ten imperial cities subsequently made common cause; and the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse were appointed chiefs of the league, and empowered to manage its affairs. The object of this formidable alliance, which included the whole of Northern Germany, Denmark, Saxony, and Würtemberg, and portions of Bavaria and Switzerland, was for the common defence of the religion and political freedom of the Protestants against the Emperor Charles V. and the Catholic states. The league was not rendered superfluous by the religious peace of Nürnberg in 1532, and on the rumour that the emperor was meditating new hostile measures against the Protestants, another meeting of the confederates was held 24th December 1535, which resolved to raise a permanent army of 10,000 foot and 2000 cavalry, and to prolong the league for ten years. The confederation was further consolidated by articles of guarantee which were drawn up by Luther at Wittenberg in 1536, and being subscribed by the theologians present at the meeting of the league at Schmalkalden in February 1537, were called the Articles of Schmalkald. Against the League, the emperor, engaged as he was at the time in contests with the Turks and French, found himself unable to contend, though supported by the Holy League, a Catholi: confederation formed in 1538, in opposition to the Protestant one. But impolitic management, mutual jealousies, and conflicting petty interests, dissipated their energies, and prevented united action. The 'War of Schmalkald' commenced by the advance of the army of the league, under Sebastian Schärtlin, into Swabia, to bar the approach of the imperial army from Italy. of Prussia, province of Hesse-Nassau, at the confluence SCHMAʼLKALDEN, an old and interesting town of the Stille and Schmalkald, 11 miles north of Meiningen. It is surrounded with double walls, contains two castles, and carries on considerable mining operations, especially in iron, and various manufactures, the chief of which are hardwares. Pop. 5600. SCHNEEBERG, a pleasantly-built and important mining town of Saxony, surrounded by mountains, 20 miles south-west of Chemnitz. Rich silver mines still the employment of many of the inhabitants. were formerly worked in the vicinity, and mining is The chief manufactures are silks, thread-lace, and blond. Pop. 7900. SCHNEE KOPPÉ, the culminating point of the mountain chain of the Riesengebirge. See BOHEMIA. SCHOLARSHIP, a benefaction, generally the annual proceeds of a bequest permanently invested, paid for the maintenance of a student at a university. At the university of Oxford there are 40, and at Cambridge, 30 scholarships; the former ranging from £20 to £100, the latter from £25 to £60 yearly. In both universities, the scholars are chosen from the undergraduates, and are often elected before they have begun their attendance at the university. They are on the foundation, but their connection with the college is not so intimate as that of the Fellows. The regulations under which they are placed, and the advantages which they enjoy, differ in the different colleges. A number of the scholarships which were formerly restricted have recently been thrown open to public competition. The Bursaries (q.v.) of the Scottish universities are nearly analo gous to the Scholarships of the English. SCHOLA'STICS, or SCHOOLMEN, originally the name given to the teachers of rhetoric at the public schools under the Roman empire, but now used almost exclusively to denote the so-called philosophers of the middle ages. After the fall of the old classic civilisation, there ensued a long anarchy of barbarism, lasting from the 6th to the 8th c.; but from the time of Charlemagne, a visible improvement took place. That great monarch encouraged learning; and the monasteries as well as the schools which he established, became subsequently the seats of a revived culture of philosophy. Conformably, however, to the spirit of a time in which learning and literary skill were confined to churchmen, philosophical activity shewed itself chiefly in the domain of theology. This preparatory period of scholasticism-say from the 9th to the 11th |