SIGHT.

optical apparatus (including the optic nerve) not
dependent on disease-viz., short-sight, long-sight,
double vision, colour-blindness, and night-blindness.
Short-sight, near-sight, or myopia (derived from the
Greek words myo, I close, ops, the eye), is often
popularly confounded with dim or weak sight; but
in reality, short-sight applies exclusively to the range
and not to the power of sight, and a short-sighted
person may possess the acutest power of vision for
near objects. In this affection, the rays which
ought to come to a focus upon the retina converge
to a point more or less in front of it. The cause
of this defect probably differs in different persons.
It may arise from over-convexity of the cornea or
the lens, from undue density or abundance of the
humours of the eye, from elongation of the globe in
its antero-posterior diameter, or from an imper-
fect power of the eye to adjust itself to objects
at various distances. The distance at which
objects are perceived most distinctly by the per-
fectly normal eye ranges from 16 to 20 inches;
an eye which cannot perceive objects distinctly
beyond 10 inches may fairly be regarded as
short-sighted; and in extreme cases, the point of
distinct vision may be three, two, or even only
one inch from the eye. Short-sight is frequently
hereditary in families. As a general rule, the
inhabitants of towns are much more liable to it than
persons living in the country, and students and
literary men are the most liable of all. While in
the Foot-guards, consisting of nearly 10,000 men,
'not half-a-dozen men have been discharged, nor
have a dozen recruits been rejected on account of
this imperfection, in a space of 20 years, in one
college at Oxford no less than 32 short-sighted men
(or myopes, as they are termed by some oculists)
were met with out of 127' (Donders, On the Accom-
modation and Refraction of the Eye, London, 1864, p.
342). The frequency of this affection in the culti-
vated ranks points directly to its principal cause-
tension of the eyes for near objects. The myopia
depending, as Donders believes, upon prolongation
of the visual axis, this eminent physiologist inquires:
"How is this prolongation to be explained? Three
factors may here come under observation: 1. Pres-
sure of the muscles on the eyeball in strong con-
vergence of the visual axes; 2. Increased pressure
of the fluids resulting from accumulation of blood
in the eyes in the stooping position; 3. Congestive
processes in the base of the eye, which, leading to
softening, give rise to extension of the membranes.
That in increased pressure, the extension occurs
principally at the posterior pole, is explained by the
want of support from the muscles of the eye at that
part. Now, in connection with the causes mentioned,
the injurious effect of fine work is, by imperfect
illumination, still more increased; for thus it is
rendered necessary that the work be brought closer
to the eyes, and that the stooping position of the
head, particularly in reading and writing, is also
increased. Hence it is that in schools where, by
bad light, the pupils read bad print in the evening,
or write with pale ink, the foundation of myopia
is mainly laid. On the contrary, in watchmakers,
although they sit the whole day with a magni-
fying-glass in one eye, we observe no development
of myopia, undoubtedly because they fix their
work only with one eye, and therefore converge but
little, and because they usually avoid a very stooping
position.'-Op. cit., pp. 343, 344.

become less available, and not unfrequently, at the age of 50 or 60, if not much earlier, the power of vision is irrevocably lost, whether through separation of the retina from the choroid, from effusion of blood, or from atrophy and degeneration of the yellow spot.'

In the treatment of myopia the principal objects are: 1. To prevent its further development and the occurrence of secondary disturbances; and 2. By means of suitable glasses, to render the use of the myopic eye easier and safer.

1. To effect, if possible, the first object, the patient must look much at a distance, but as we cannot absolutely forbid his looking at near objects, spectacles must be provided which render vision distinct at from 16 to 18 inches. Moreover, it is desirable that at intervals of a half hour work should be discontinued for a couple of minutes, and no working in a stooping position should be permitted. The patient should read with the book in the hand, and in writing should use a high and sloping desk. 2. The optical remedy for short-sight obviously consists in concave glasses of a focus suited to the individual case. At first sight, it might be supposed that glasses with a concavity exactly sufficient to neutralise the defect in the eye, would always suffice; and when the glasses are used exclusively for distant vision (for example, in the double eyeglass, which is only at intervals held before the eye), or when the affection is slight, and the eye is otherwise healthy, perfect neutralisation is admissible; but so many circumstances forbid the complete neutralisation of the myopia, that an oculist of reputation should always, if possible, be consulted as to the choice of spectacles. Glasses, if injudiciously selected, usually aggravate the evil they are intended to remedy; and in connection with this subject, we must warn our readers against the prevalent habit of employing a single eye-glass; it is most prejudicial to the eye which is left unemployed, and often leads to its permanent injury.

Long-sight and presbyopia (derived from the Greek words presbys, an aged person, and ops, the eye), are usually considered by English writers as synonymous terms. Donders, who is now universally accepted as the highest authority on this department of eyeaffections, maintains that the term presbyopia is to be restricted to the condition in which, as the result of the increase of years, the range of accommodation is diminished, and the vision of near objects is interfered with.' As from youth up to extreme old age, the vision of near objects becomes progressively more and more difficult, it is impossible to fix any limit as the commencement of presbyopia. In practice, however, a word is required which indicates the condition in which the eye, at an advanced period of life, and sometimes sooner, requires convex spectacles for distinct near vision, as, for example, for reading, and this word is presbyopia. In this state, the nearest point of distinct binocular vision is found to lie about 8 inches (or double the ordinary distance) from the eye, and at this point Donders arbitrarily places the commencement of presbyopia. This condition, which is as natural a concomitant of advanced life as gray hairs or wrinkles, is occasionally met with in young persons. In these cases, it generally arises from intestinal irritation, and may be a precursor of amaurosis; hence such cases should be carefully watched. In ordinary presbyopia, the defect is at once remedied by the So far from short-sightedness improving in use of glasses of low convex power, as of thirty or advanced life, as is popularly believed, it is too twenty-four inches focus, which should, however, frequently a progressive affection; and every pro- only be worn during reading and writing, and not gressive myopia is threatening with respect to the constantly. Although the improper use of convex future. If,' says Donders, it continues progres-glasses is not by any means so dangerous as the sive, the eye will soon, with troublesome symptoms, i inconsiderate use of concave glasses, the advice of a

well worth his fee.

SIGHT OF A GUN-SIGISMUND.

good oculist regarding the choice of spectacles is lets. The stems of S. are abundant in the coalbeds. They are marked by parallel longitudinal Double vision, or diplopia, is of two kinds. It may flutings, and regular scars formed by the base of the arise from a want of harmony in the movements leaf-stalks, which had fallen off. They are known of the two eyes, the vision of each eye singly being to have attained a height of 70 feet, and a diameter perfect; or there may be double vision with one of 5 feet. The stem rose without branching till eye only. The first form may occur (1) in cases of near the summit, where it branched several times. squinting, or (2) in cases of paralysis of one or more dichotomously. The proportion of woody matter

of the muscles of the orbit. In cases of Squinting to cellular tissue in the stem was very small. The (q. v.), the vision of the most distorted eye is almost always imperfect; and it is well known that impressions on the two retinæ are similar in kind but dissimilar in form. The mind takes cognizance only of the former; so that a person with a bad squint sees objects with the sound eye only. But if the sight of both eyes is nearly equal, as often is the case when the squint is not very well marked, double vision results whenever both eyes are employed together, in consequence of images of nearly equal intensity falling on non-corresponding parts of the two retina. This variety of double vision, although annoying, is perfectly harmless. When double vision arises from muscular paralysis, disease of the brain of a serious nature is to be apprehended, although the affection sometimes appears to arise from exposure to cold. The second form of double vision-viz., double vision with a single eye, is a much more rare affection than the preceding one, and depends upon some irregular refraction of the cornea or lens.

ས

Colour-blindness is noticed under its own name. Night-blindness, or hemeralopia (from the Greek, signifying ‘day-sight'), is a peculiar form of intermittent blindness, the subjects of which see perfectly with an ordinary light, but become entirely and almost instantaneously blind as soon as twilight commences. It is seldom met with in this country except among sailors just returned from tropical regions. It is frequent among the natives of some parts of India, who attribute it, as our own sailors do, to sleeping exposed to the moonbeams. The most probable cause of the affection is, however, exhaustion of the power of the retina from overexcitement from excessive light, so that this organ is rendered incapable of appreciating the weaker stimulating action of twilight or moonlight. All that suggests itself in the way of treatment is to protect the eyes from strong light during the day, and to prescribe quinine and a nourishing mixed diet. Snow-blindness must be regarded as an allied affection to the preceding.

SIGHT OF A GUN. See GUNNERY.

SIGILLA'RIA, a genus of fossil plants which are of importance because of their singular structure,

Trunk of Sigillaria rising from the Stigmaria Roots (E. W. Binney).

woody fibre is characterised by the abundance of
scalariform vessels, similar to those which occur in
Lepidodendron, and in the recent vascular Crypto-
gamia. The stem is seldom found preserved so as
to exhibit any structure, or even its cylindrical
form; it generally occurs as a double layer of coal,
shewing on the outer surfaces the scars produced
by the bases of the leaf-stalks. The form and
arrangement of these scars have been used to distin-
guish the species, and, indeed, no other materials
exist, for hitherto no foliage of any kind has been
certainly found connected with the trunks. The
restoration of the genus has been consequently
quite imaginary. Some, with Brongniart, have
supposed that the trunk terminated in a crown of
simple leaves, like that of many palms, and that it
Cycads. Others,
was a gymnosperm near to the
with King, consider that the fronds of Pecopteris
nervosa, which are very abundant in the coal mea-
sures, are its foliage, and they would restore it so as
to have the appearance of a modern tree-fern. And
others, with Binney, consider that its affinities are
nearer to Lepidodendron, and that some of the
this genus may really be the branches of Sigillaria.
numerous fragments which have been referred to
They would restore it as if it were a huge Lyco-
podium, and refer to it some of those fruits which,
under the names of Lepidostrobus and Flemingites.
have been described by Brown, Hooker, and Car-

ruthers.

and their remarkable abundance in the coal measures. They seem to have contributed more than any other genus of plants to the formation of coal. The roots of S. are found preserved in the shale which forms the floor of all coal-seams. These roots were originally supposed to be distinct plants, and have received the generic name of Stigmaria. The SIGISMUND, emperor of Germany (1411most feasible notion, and that generally accepted 1437), was the son of the Emperor Karl IV. He regarding them, was that they were fleshy water- was well educated, and having married Maria of plants, with numerous linear leaves, articulated to Anjou, on her accession to the throne of Hungary the stem by papillæ, which were buried in deep he became chief administrator of that kingdom. cylindrical hollows in the stem. Brongniart first The death of his wife in 1392 made him king of suspected that they were roots, and Binney placed Hungary; and at the head of a numerous army of the question beyond doubt by discovering a speci- more than 100,000 men, composed of Hungarians, men in which the trunk of a Š. rose from the crown French, Germans, and Poles, he attempted to relieve of a Stigmaria. Several observers have subse- the Byzantine empire from the fierce Turks, but quently seen these fossils also in actual contact. It was terribly defeated at Nicopolis (28th September, is believed that the mud (now converted into shale) 1396). On his return to Hungary, he found in which they grew was very soft, and easily permitted the passage of the large roots, while they gave off all round innumerable large hollow root

on the throne a new monarch, Ladislas of Naples. who imprisoned him (1401); but through the good offices of his elder brother, Wenceslas, he was freed,

SIGISMUND-SIGNALS.

and obtained the throne (1402), rewarding his
elder brother by snatching from him his kingdom
of Bohemia, which he retained for some time. In
1411, he was proclaimed emperor, on the death of
Rupert. He was present at the Council of Con-
stance, which he had prevailed upon Pope John
XXIII. to hold for the purpose of putting an
end to the Hussite and other schisms. He con-
tented himself with protesting against the viola-
tion of the imperial safe-conduct which was given
to Huss, and ultimately consented to his judicial
murder, for the purpose, as his apologists say, of
conciliating the council, and so settling the dis-
putes concerning the papacy His succession to
the throne of Bohemia, after his brother's death,
was opposed by the Hussites, who were now in
insurrection; and after a fruitless attempt to con-
quer them, he confined himself to the defence of
Hungary against the Turks, whom he defeated in a
great battle near Nissa (1419). For ten years after-
wards, he left Germany very much to the guidance
of its self-willed petty rulers, who speedily brought
the country into such a deplorable state that they
were glad to beseech S. to return to the helm of
affairs-which he did, but with little good effect.
He obtained, by concessions to the Calixtines (q. v.),
the crown of Bohemia in 1436; but when he found
himself firmly seated on the throne, he gradually
withdrew these concessions, which provoked such
discontent, that his death, 9th December 1437, alone
averted a civil war. S. left one daughter, Eliza-
beth, who, by her marriage with Albert V. of
Austria, brought Hungary and Bohemia to the
House of Hapsburg. S. possessed a large intelli-worthy superiority over them.
gence, and remarkable political talents, but these
were much neutralised by his impetuosity, inde-
cision, selfishness, and extraordinary avarice; and
his well-meaning endeavours after peace and
improvement ended in nothing.

quent invasions of Moscovites and Tartars were
repelled as before, and a rebellion of the Wallachs
was punished by numerous defeats, chief of which
was that of Obertyn (1531). The insolence of the
Teutonic Order, who had invaded Polish Prussia,
was effectually chastised by S., who defeated their
Grand Master Albert, his own nephew, in two great
battles, in the latter of which the knights were
assisted by the Danes (1520). In 1525, he agreed
to confer on Albert the title of Duke of Prussia
(now known as East Prussia), on condition of fealty
and homage. The dukes of Prussia continued as
vassals of the Polish crown till 1657. In 1526, S.
alone of the monarchs of Christendom lent aid to
Hungary against the formidable array of Solyman
the Magnificent, and a numerous force of Polish
cavaliers fought bravely on the fatal field of
Mohacz (1526). The only other important event
of S.'s reign was the introduction and extension of
Lutheranism in Poland, a change which S. did
nothing to prevent, only taking precautions, and
sometimes severe ones, against its affecting the
civil and political condition of the country. It
is told of him that, when John Eck exhorted
him to take severe measures with the Lutherans,
whom he compared to goats among the sheep
(the faithful Catholics '), S. replied that he was
desirous of being 'king of goats as well as king
of sheep.' After a long and glorious reign, S. died
at Cracow, 1st April 1548, leaving the character of
a just, wise, and magnanimous prince, who had
restored to his country its ancient prosperity, and
had raised it from the very feet of its enemies to a

SIGISMUND, worthily surnamed the GREAT, king of Poland, was the youngest son of Casimir IV., and was born at Koziénicé, 1467. He was chosen Grand Duke of Lithuania, 1506, and succeeded to the kingdom of Poland on 8th December of the same year. The affairs of Poland and Lithuania were at that time in a sad condition; the southern portions of the country reduced almost to a desert by the ravages of the Tartars, while the east was continually in dread of the Russians, who had become an independent, united, and powerful monarchy. The Russians invaded Lithuania, and conquered some provinces, but S. gained a brilliant victory over them at Orsza on the Dnieper (14th July 1508). Bogdan, Prince of Moldavia and Wallachia, now invaded the southern provinces, as that semi-barbarous race were accustomed to do without let or hindrance; but he was so decisively routed on the banks of the Dniester, that he gladly agreed to acknowledge himself a vassal of Poland. Disregarding the suggestions of the pope to head a crusade against the Turks, S. next read the Tartars, through his general, Ostrogski, a very forcible lesson, in 1512, against aggressive practices, which cost them 27,000 men, and assured the tranquillity of his frontier for a long period. His alliance in 1513 with Stephen Zapoli, voyvode of Transylvania, whose daughter, Barbara, he also married, alarmed the Emperor Maximilian, who incited the Russians to resume their aggressions, which that ill-advised nation cheerfully agreed to do; paying dearly for their rashness, for their army of 80,000, which had invaded Lithuania, was met and cut to pieces (8th September, 1814) by Ostrogski, with 32,000 men, at Orsza, leaving its standards, cannons, and other arms, 2 generals, 37 princes, 6000 prisoners, and 30,000 dead in the possession of the enemy. Subse

SIGNALS are the means of transmitting intelligence to a greater or less distance by the agency of sight or hearing. Incomparably the most powerful medium yet known for this purpose is the electric current. See TELEGRAPH. Sound signals have obviously but a short circuit. The electric current requires fixed apparatus establishing an actual communication between the two points; and is therefore inapplicable to the ordinary cases of ships interchanging signals with each other or with the shore; and, except under unusual circumstances, it would not apply to armies manoeuvring in the field. For these purposes, so far as present knowledge extends, signals by sight or sound must always be practically the resort.

The ancients seem to have elaborated a fair system of night-signals by torches for military pur poses; but in naval affairs the ships sailed so close together, that orders could be communicated by word of mouth, while the turning of a shield from right to left sufficed as sailing directions to the several lines. In modern times, signalling between ships has become indispensable; but there is probably no department of practical science in which progress has been slower, and every so-called system of signals has been distinctly without any system whatever. In the time of James II., a signal could only be expressed by flags, in confusing number, hung in different parts of the vessel. By the commencement of the present century, thanks to Sir Home Popham and other inventors, the system had been adopted of hanging a number of flags under one another, each symbol or combination having an arbitrary conventional meaning attached to it. Alterations in the specific flags have been made from time to time, but essentially this is the system now in use. The flags are either square, triangular of the same length, or pendants which are pointed and longer. These are of black, white, red, blue, and yellow (in the Austrian service alone green is added) in mass or in combination. Specimens of the flags in use in the present naval

SIGNALS.

It has consequently been the recent tendency, and apparently most justly, to reduce all the signs to black and white, singly or in combination, trusting to shape for different signals.

to Colonel Grant, Captain Bolton, Mr Redl, and
Lieutenant Colomb, R.N. Their principal object
has been so to simplify the telegraph system that
signals may be made with any apparatus, or without
apparatus at all. To accomplish this, they have,
to a great extent, abjured colour, and resorted to
form and motion. Among the form telegraphs there
is the principle of the
old Semaphore (q. v.), in
which each letter or
number is shewn by the
position of two arms, as
in fig. 2. The arms

Γ 1 ୮

are heavy, and involve Fig. 2.-Semaphore System. mechanism; besides

which they are not always clear on a ship in motion beyond a short distance. Very superior in visibility and simplicity is Redl's System of Cones. This consists of 4 cones fixed to a mast. The cones are collapsable, and are formed in a similar manner to umbrellas. Their usual condition is shut, and they can only be held open while a rope attached to each is pulled. With cones of 3 feet base, signalling is rapid and clear up to 5 miles, and the mast can be inserted at any place. The system is very simple: each cone represents a number, 1, 2, 3, or 4; then 1 and 4 shewn represent 5; 2 and 4, 6; and so on, as in fig. 3. This very elegant system can be applied in military

1

2 3 41
5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 3.-Cone System.

or naval operations. But its chief beauty is, that a person understanding it can make the same signals without the cones; for example: if a black flag represent an open cone, and a white flag a shut cone, a ship with 4 black and 3 white flags can make every signal. Again, the arm raised horizontally may represent the open cone; against the body, the shut cone; then two men standing on a cliff are as good as any signal-post, see fig 4. Or if one person

There are, however, disadvantages attending flags. In a still day, they are difficult to read; or the wind may so blow that they are only seen end on. At sea, the motion of a ship will generally neutralise these drawbacks; but the case is otherwise on shore, and it may consequently occur that the ship can communicate to the land, but cannot get a reply. To obviate this, signals representing solid figures are sometimes employed. To fulfil their conditions, they must appear the same in whatever lateral direction seen. But this limits the shapes to cylinders, cones, and the sphere, or combinations of those figures; and as the total number of distin guishable signs is reduced, signalling becomes reduced from the word-signal to the telegraph. This distinction should be clearly understood, as much is involved in it. A word-signal, as in the present system, is where the whole word or message is sent up at once, and flies simultaneously; a telegraph signal is one in which the letters composing the word or numbers representing the signal are shewn separately, and each is removed before another is shewn. At sea, the word-system is best, for it involves no act of memory; and memory, even from signal to signal, is found difficult by signalmen in the turmoil of perhaps storm or fighting. On the other hand, the telegraph system involves far simpler apparatus, and the changes can be effected more rapidly. As regards the actual time required for a message, the word-system has the advantage in a message short enough for the whole to be shewn at one time; but otherwise the difference is not material. If all advantages be balanced, it is probable that the telegraph system will eventually supersede the other entirely. Whether the word or the telegraph system be practised, another question is, whether to spell each word, or to use numerals and a code. Under the latter principle, about 14,000 of the words and sentences most commonly sent are arranged for easy reference in the signal-book. With the addition of 1 or 2 repeating symbols, the 9 numerals and 0 give combinations 4 together to this number. A combination of figures is arbitrarily assigned to each expression; and the expression is communicated by representing those figures in their proper order. With the book of reference at hand, and intelligent signalmen, there can be no doubt of only be present, he may represent an open core by the superior rapidity of the 'code.' A code has raising his arm with a handkerchief extended, and a also this further advantage, that the signals repre- shut cone by his arm without the handkerchief. He senting things and not words, it can be made inter- has only then to raise his arm four times in quick national, the same symbols representing the same succession, with or without the handkerchief, to make idea in every language. It is then only necessary for the required signal. We have thus arrived at a universal signalling that each nation should concur universal system of the utmost simplicity, which in in the meaning to be attached to the several signs. war, and especially during invasion, might be of Many gentlemen of ability have devoted their atten- inestimable benefit to the nation. The code of sigtion of late years to the simplification of signals; nals cannot be too generally diffused by the govern among whom conspicuous positions must be assigned | ment, in order that every man among the publia

Fig. 4.

8

SIGNATURE-SIGNET.

may become an amateur signalman on emergency. A secret code, in which the same numbers have different significations, could always be maintained for state purposes.

It only remains to apply the same system to night-signals. The old naval principle has been to hang dingy lanterns in various shapes-triangles, squares, crosses, &c. Besides requiring large bases to be at all visible, this has been found from the motion of a ship to be nearly useless. Redl's system has been applied by hanging four lanterns in a vertical line to represent the cones, and obscuring those which corresponded to shut cones. An improvement was found in introducing a red or green light in the middle, to shew the relative position of the four. The best night-signals are, however, flashing lights, as introduced by Captain Bolton, and more elaborately by Lieutenant Colomb, and adopted in the navy. This consists of a bright light, covered by a shade, which shade, by mechanism, can be lifted for any given time, exposing the light meanwhile. A flash of about half a second's duration is negative: a line of 1 seconds, positive. Four exhibitions of the light then represent a symbol as in Redl's cones. If the same nomenclature

MAJOR.

within a mile or so, and the weather still, a bugle will answer equally well, long and short notes representing the positive and negative cones.

The fundamental principle of the foregoing system of universal telegraphy, applicable by night or by day, by sight or by sound, is to employ two signals only-one positive and one negative-and to regu late their exhibition by periods of time.

SIGNATURE, in Music. In writing music in any key with sharps or flats, the sharps and flats belonging to the key, instead of being prefixed to each note as required, are placed together immediately after the clef on the degrees of the staff to which they belong; and this collection of sharps or flats is called the signature. The signatures of the several keys generally in use are as follows:

The minor keys take the same signature with the major keys a third above them.

When a new key is introduced in the middle of a piece of music, the signature of the former key must be contradicted, and that of the new one appended. Thus a transition from the key of D major to that

of D minor, is indicated thus:

from B major to B minor:

the sharps which are to continue being, in this last case, for distinctness' sake, appended in addition to the contradiction of those that are to be discarded. A transition to another key, which is not to continue for any length of time, is seldom indicated by a change of signature; but the sharp, flat, or natural sign is appended to any note as required, that sign affecting all the following notes of the same letter in the measure in which it occurs, unless contra · dicted. A sharp, flat, or natural thus introduced is called an accidental. Two accidentals are required in the ascending scale of every minor key, to sharpen the sixth and seventh of the tonic.

|

and

three quavers, in the measure. When there are four crotchets (or a semibreve) in the measure, it is usual to write instead of

SIGNATURE, in Printing, denotes the letters which are placed at the bottom of the first page of each sheet of a book, to facilitate the arrangement of the several sheets in the volume. The letters

employed are those of the alphabet, with the excep
tion of J, V, and W, three letters which have been
invented since the use of signatures was introduced.
See ALPHABET. As the first sheet of a work, con-
taining the title-page, dedication, preface, &c., is
generally printed last, the letter A is reserved
(along with small letters, a, b, &c., should there be
more sheets of introductory matter) for this, and the
signatures commence with B; after reaching Z, they
commence again at the beginning of the alphabet,
the letter being doubled for the sake of distinction
as AA, or Aa, or more frequently 2A. Should th
alphabet again be exhausted, 3A, 3B, &c., are nex
This is the method employe
employed, and so on.
in Britain; in France and Italy, figures are generall
used. Signatures (as B2, B3, &c.) are also placed
on certain pages of the same sheet, as a further
direction to the bookbinder.

Besides the signature of the key, a signature of time precedes every musical composition. It consists of two figures placed over one another as a fraction, the denominator 2, 4, 8, or 16 standing for minims, crotchets, quavers, or semiquavers (i. e., halves, fourths, &c. of a semibreve), while the SIGNET, in England, one of the seals for the numerator points out how many of these fractional authentication of royal grants. Prior to 1848, all parts of a semibreve are contained in each measure. | letters-patent and other documents which had to