SOAP.

The chemical composition of soap may be explained which is converted into a filter by covering it with as follows: The fixed fatty bodies, stearine, a piece of coarse canvas. In these tanks, alternate palmitine, and oleine (we do not include margarine, layers of soda-ash and quicklime are laid in regular for it is now generally admitted that the fat to proportions-the function of the lime being to which this name was applied is merely a mixture deprive the carbonate of soda of its carbonic acid of stearine and palmitine), when heated with and water is let in slowly, until the tanks alkaline solutions, undergo the remarkable change are full. In this state they are left for nearly a known under the title Saponification, or conversion whole day, when the plugs are withdrawn, and the into soap, during which process the fats yield liquid is received into a vessel placed below. The up a clear viscid liquid, which, from its sweet- plugs are then replaced, and the tanks refilled with ness, is termed Glycerine (q. v.). The nature of this water, which, after remaining a sufficient time, is in change may be ascertained by decomposing the soap the same way drawn off into another vessel. This that is thus formed, and which exists as a homo- is repeated as long as any alkali remains to be geneous transparent mass, freely soluble in warm dissolved. Each drawing-off is kept by itself, and water, by the addition of some acid, such as tartaric they are called first-running, second-running, and so or hydrochloric, which combines with the alkali, and on. The next step is to pump about 200 gallons forms a soluble compound with it. A fatty matter of the weakest, which should contain not less than separates in flakes, which melt on the application of two per cent. of pure alkali, into the copper, which heat, and form an oily layer on the surface of the is an iron basin of large size; a ton of fat is added, fluid. This substance, when cold, is found to be and heat sufficient to boil gently is applied for very different from the original fat. It has acquired about four hours. The fire being then allowed to go a strongly acid reaction, as may be ascertained by out, the lye is found to have lost its alkali, and in applying test-paper to it in its melted state, and an hour or two settles down at the bottom of the it is freely soluble in alcohol, the solution being copper, from which it is withdrawn, leaving the strongly acid. It at once forms a clear solution now partially saponified fat behind. To this is in hot alkaline liquids, while the original fat would then added another portion of lye of the running under similar conditions have formed a milky-look-next in strength to that used, and a fresh quantity ing fluid. It is, in fact, a true acid, capable of of fat is also added; the boiling operation is forming salts, the potash and soda salts being repeated, and afterwards the spent lye is withdrawn. known as soft-soap and hard-soap, which have been This process is repeated until all the lyes from the thus generated out of the elements of the neutral weakest to the strongest have been used. These fat under the influence of the alkali. Stearine, when successive operations usually occupy five or six thus treated, yields Stearic Acid (q. v.); palmitine days, by which time the whole quantity is comyields Palmitic Acid (q. v.); and oleine, Oleic Acid pletely converted into soap, a result which is known (q. v.); while common fat, which is a mixture of by various tests to the experienced workman. the three above-named fats, affords, on saponification with an alkali, and subsequent decomposition of the soap, a mixture of the three fatty acids. It is found that the weight of these acids and of the glycerine always exceeds by about 4 per cent. that of the fat originally employed. This may be explained by the fact, that each fat is a compound of a fatty acid with the base of glycerine, which has been displaced by the alkali in the act of saponification. The hydrated alkali, in displacing the glycerine base, gives up a portion of water to it, and thus increases its weight; while the fatty acid, on being separated from the soap, in like manner combines with a portion of water.

The term soap is sometimes extended in meaning, so as to include compounds of the fatty acids with other bases besides the alkalies, e. g., lime, baryta, magnesia, &c.; but these compounds being insoluble are inapplicable to the purpose of cleaning. The true soaps owe their cleaning power to their solubility, and their attraction for the matters that ordinarily constitute ‘dirtiness.' The presence of a portion of tree alkali increases the detergent power, especially in the case of greasy matter.

Manufacture.-It is found in practice, that generally all such fats and oils as soon become rancid that is, naturally decompose, and liberate their acids are the most economical for soap-making. Besides the oils, fats, and alkalies, resin (q. v.) is used in order to economise the more expensive alkalies; a small portion of lime, dissolved by the water in the first stage of the process, also enters into the composition of soap. The chief oils or fats used in soap-making are tallow and grease, palm oil, cocoa-nut oil, and olive oil for hard-soaps; and Alinseed and hempseed oils for soft-soaps. The first stage in the manufacture of common soap is to produce a caustic alkaline lye: this is done in iron tanks, usually six feet in width, and four feet in depth, with a plug-hole at the bottom; sometimes they have a perforated false-bottom inside,

But although the saponification has thus been effected, the material is not in a state fit for use; it has therefore to be reboiled with a quantity of water or very weak lye, until it is so diluted that its particles seem to be separating from each other; then the boiling is carried on with great vigour; and to prevent its boiling over, the men keep shovelling back the lye from the breast of the boiler, so as to break up the froth, and promote the evaporation of the water. After a time, the soapy particles distributed through the fluid begin to cohere until they are all united again in one pasty mass, resting on the top of the water; the cover is then put on the top of the copper, and the fire withdrawn, and the whole left standing for about three days, when the lid is lifted, and the soap is carefully removed from the top of the spent lye or water by means of ladles, which transfer it to wooden or iron tanks, made up of a number of frames of regular size, placed upon one another; each the thickness of a bar of soap. When the soap has set, a piece of wire is drawn successively between each two frames, and they are thus cut asunder with the soap they enclose. They are then set on their sides for a short time, and the soap becoming drier, is easily detached in the form of square cakes of uniform thickness. These cak: are then cut by wire transversely, so as to form the square bars of commerce.

To manufacture soap successfully requires much skill, for the materials are rarely of exactly the same qualities; the process cannot be reduced to the nice exactness of other chemical manipulations, therefore much depends upon the eye and the experience of those employed. If soaps become tinged with the iron of the boiler in which they are made, as they usually do, and contain too little water to render them sufficiently fluid to deposit these stained portions, the soap is then mottled, and these mottled soaps became favourites, because they were less mixed with water; but this distinction is

SOAP-SOAPWORT.

not now of much value, for they are successfully imitated. The Castile or olive-oil soaps of Spain are amongst the best. The palm-oil and resin soap, so largely manufactured in America, is the cheapest and best fitted for common use. Perfumed soaps are only used for the toilet, and are very various, according to the odour employed, and the artificial colours imparted to them. Marine-soap is made of cocoa-nut oil, soda, and water, and has the remarkable property of dissolving as well in salt water as in fresh, hence it is much used at sea for washing. Soft-soap is comparatively little used, except for coarse purposes, in America; but in the northern parts of Europe, especially in Holland, it is chiefly used for washing linen, &c.

a gallon. A solution of soap in proof-spirit is next prepared of such strength, as that a quantity of it which will fill 32 measures of a volumetric tube, each measure of which contains 10 grains, will be exactly able to convert 1000 grains' measure of the standard solution of hard water into the earthy soap described. This point is thus ascertained: The hard water is placed in a stoppered bottle, and the soap solution added to it by degrees, the bottle being shaken after each addition, when a bubble will form, which rapidly disappears so long as any lime is present; but when at last it is all used up, a froth of soap bubbles remains after hard shaking, such as to last unbroken for three minutes. If, now, a given sample of water be examined, and this point Several vegetables contain a principle called is reached at the a principle called is reached at the expense of the entire 32 measures, it suponin, which is remarkably analogous to soap in is a water of 16 degrees of hardness. Now, perfectly its action, hence they are in different parts of the soft water consumes 2 measures of the soap solution world used for washing clothing, &c. See SOAP- before permanent bubbles are formed, so that a water of 16 degrees of hardness has in reality only consumed 0.53;

WORT.

SOAP, MEDICAL USES OF. The only kind of soap that should be used internally is White Soda Soap. It is prepared from caustic soda, and either olive or almond oil. In its purest state, it is called Medicinal Soap, while in its less pure forms it is known as Alicant, Venice, or Spanish soap. When properly made, it should be perfectly soluble in pure water and in alcohol. It is chiefly employed to form pills of a gently aperient and antacid action. Pills containing a combination of soap and dried carbonate of soda, are of great use in certain forms of gravel. Soap is often added to pills as an adjuvant, or for the purpose of preventing them from becoming hard and insoluble. White soap affords a ready antidote in cases of poisoning with the strong mineral acids. Soft-soap ought to be made with olive oil and potash, and it should be of yellowish-white colour, inodorous, and of the consistence of thick honey. It is of great service, as an external application, either alone or in association with sulphuret of potash, and other remedies, in various cutaneous affections.

SOAPBERRY (Sapindus saponaria), a West Indian tree, of the natural order Sapindaceae, the pulp of the fruit of which is used instead of soap in washing. This property belongs to other species of the same genus. With the exception of S. marginatus, found in the southern states of North America, the genus is entirely tropical. The use of the pulp as soap, if often repeated, is apt to injure linen; but it is capable of cleansing as much linen as sixty times its weight of soap. Each fruit contains a nut of a shining black colour. These nuts are very hard, and were formerly imported into Europe to be made into waistcoat buttons, being tipped with silver or other metal. They were little liable either to be injured by wearing or to be broken.

SOAP-STONE. See STEATITE.

SOAP-TEST. This test, for which science is indebted to Professor Clark of Aberdeen, is now universally employed for determining the degree of hardness of water. Every one knows how much more readily a lather is formed-as, for example, in washing the hands-with soft than with hard water. This is accounted for by the earthy bases of the hard water displacing the alkaline bases of the soap, and forming compounds insoluble in water. This is the foundation of the soap-test. A hard water of known strength is first prepared by dissolving 16 grains of pure carbonate of lime in pure hydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness, and dissolving the resulting chloride of calcium in a gallon of distilled water. This gallon of chloride of calcium solution accurately represents a natural water whose hardness is due to 16 grains of carbonate of lime in

30 measures of the soap solution. But 16

30

hence, if any given measures of the soap-test be used in estimating the hardness of a water, we must first subtract 2 from the amount, and then multiply by 0·53; and the result will give us the degree of hardness. For example, let a given sample require 27 measures of the soap-test. On subtracting 2, and multiplying by 0.53, we find its hardness to be 12-25. Clark's Soap-test Table for Hardness of Water is given in the article Soap-test' in Knight's English Cyclopædia; and full details regarding the mode of working the test, to determine the amount of lime, magnesia, soda, sulphuric acid, and pure carbonic acid, are given in Dr Parkes's Manual of Practical Hygiene (Lond. 1864).

outer calyx or attendant bracteæ, five undivided petals with long claws, ten stamens, two stigmas, and a capsule opening at the top by four valves. Some of the species have very beautiful flowers. S. Calabrica has of late become one of the most favourite annuals of our flower-gardens.- COMMON S. (S. officinalis) is found on waysides, in thickets, and on the banks of streams, in most parts of Europe, although it is a somewhat doubtful native of Britain. Both the root and the leaves contain Saponin (q. v.), in consequence of which they are sometimes employed for washing. The brownishred colour of the bark of the root, however, is apt

SOBBING-SOCIALISM.

to tinge white articles. The root of this plant has also medicinal properties, being aperient, resolvent, and alterative. It is sometimes sold as RED SOAP

ROOT.

Nearly allied to the genus Saponaria, but having an angular calyx and a 5-valved capsule, is the genus Gypsophila, some species of which are called SOAP-ROOT, and contain much saponin. Thus, the EGYPTIAN SOAP-ROOT (G. struthium), and the SPANISH SOAP-ROOT (G. Hispanica), called Jabonera in Spain, have been employed for washing from time immemorial, and the roots not having a dark rind, can be used for washing white articles, and are to some extent an article of commerce, being used for silken and other stuffs, the colours of which will not bear the application of soap. The roots of Lychnis dioica, one of the most common British plants, possess the same properties in an inferior degree. The bark of Quillaja saponaria, a Chilian tree of the natural order Rosacea, contains much saponin, is generally used for washing in Chili and Peru, and there forms a considerable article of commerce. Some of the tropical South Sea Islands produce a species of vine (Vitis saponaria), the stem of which, especially the thicker part, cut into pieces, and softened by cooking on hot stones, produces in water a rich lather almost equal to that of soap. See also Solanum.

SOBBING is merely a modification of the ordinary movements of respiration excited by mental emotions. It is the consequence of a series of short convulsive contractions of the diaphragm, and is usually accompanied by a closure of the glottis, temporarily preventing the entrance of air into the lungs.

SOBRAO'N, a village on the left bank of the Sutlej, 25 miles east-north-east of Ferozpur, near which, on 10th February 1846, a most obstinate battle was fought between the British army of 15,000 men, under Sir Hugh Gough, and a Sikh force numbering 30,000. The Sikhs were strongly intrenched, and vigorously resisted the attacks of their opponents, but the courage and perseverance of the latter ultimately gave them the mastery; the various earthworks were captured in succession, and the Sikhs driven across the Sutlej, with a loss in killed, wounded, and drowned of 13,000. Gough immediately followed up his victory by crossing into the Punjab in pursuit of the fleeing enemy.

SOCAGE, or SOCCAGE (originally hlaford-socn, seeking a lord; whence we have also soc, a right of holding a court), a tenure of lands in England, of which the characteristic feature is, that the service is fixed and determinate in quality, thereby differing both from knight-service and from villeinage. It was originally peculiar to the Anglo-Danish districts of England. At the time when the allodial tenure was converted into immediate dependence on the crown, this tenure seems to have arisen out of the necessity for commendation or seeking a lord. In Domesday, socmen are often mentioned as bound 'to seek a lord,' or free to go with their land where they pleased. The socmen of Stamford are said to be free to seek a lord, being only liable to the king for the toll attached to them as inhabitants of a borough. The obligation of socage in its origin has been compared to the mutual bonds of allegiance of later times so common in the Highlands of Scotland, and known as Bonds of Manrent (see MANRENT). Three kinds of socage have been enumerated as existing at a later period-viz., free and common Bocage, socage in ancient tenure, and socage in base tenure. The second and third kind are equivalent to tenure in ancient demesne and copyhold tenure (see DEMESNY ANCIENT, and COPYHOLD), and the

first is what has generally and more properly been denominated socage, where the services were both certain and honourable. Besides fealty, which the socager was bound to do when required, he was obliged to give attendance at the court baron of his lord, if he held one, either for a manor or for a seigniory in gross.

By an act passed during the Commonwealth, and confirmed after the Restoration by 12 Car. II. c. 24, tenure by knight-service was abolished, and all lands except church-lands held in free alms, were directed to be held in free and common socage, which is now (with that exception) the universal tenure of real property in England and Ireland. Socage tenures are unknown in Scotland, where, unless at a very early period, they never existed. SOCIALISM, the name given to a class of opinions opposed to the present organisation of society, and which seeks to introduce a new distribution of property and labour in which organised co-operation rather than competition should be the dominating principle, under the conviction that the happiness of the race, and especially of the classes without capital, would be benefited thereby. Historically considered, Socialism, like many of the significant phenomena of our age, is a product of the French Revolution. That terrible outburst of popular discontent is most properly regarded as an anarchic attack on the social system that had its roots in the feudalism of the middle ages. The furious hatred of the court and the aristocracy, the passionate love of the people,' of humanity,' of liberty,' though called forth by special circumstances, and never formally worked out into a theory of social life, virtually contained in themIn the middle ages, the right of freely and fully enjoyselves the germs of all later proposed organisations. limited to a favoured few; while the great masses ing life, property, and political independence was were condemned to dumb servitude, and a perpetual minority. Even the industrial population did not recognise the Socialistic idea. The members of the different guilds or fraternities claimed exclusive right to exercise certain branches of industry, and probably the great majority of the inhabitants of a Amid such social conditions, resting, as they did, on town remained in a disregarded and dependent state. the free action of individual life, and even the vital a belief in the necessity of different distinct ranks, progress of the whole community, became well-nigh impossible. We have not space here to trace the course of the various minor reforms that weakened the authority of the medieval theory of life; but we must not omit to notice the speculations of the political philosophers of the 18th c. in France, England, and Germany, as operating powerfully in favour of a new social system, in which the idea of humanity (assuming, at the French Revolution, as we have observed, the concrete form of the people') stands out prominently. Nevertheless, the first shape that the modern spirit of industry took, was not Socialistic, in the strict and proper sense of the term: it was rather individualistic, and found, as it still finds-for it is yet the prevailing theory

เ

its natural expression in such proverbs as, 'A fair field, and no favour;' 'Every one for himself, and God for us all.' But still, even this lawless individualism is to be regarded as a protest against the false class-legislation of preceding times, and as an assertion of the absolute right of each member of society to a share in the general welfare. That it has not universally commended itself to civilised mankind, as a perfect system, is demonstrated by the appearance and temporary popularity of such schemes of society as those of Owen (q. v.), Fourier (q. v.), St Simon (q. v.), and the enthusiasm excited at

SOCIAL SCIENCE-SOCINUS.

intervals in different parts of Europe by the promulgation of extreme communistic opinions. See COMMUNISM. It is objected to Socialism, under its various forms, that it makes human happiness too much dependent on material gratifications; that it robs man of that energy that springs from ambition; that it unphilosophically ignores an individualism and inequality to which Nature herself has given her inviolable sanction; and that, by the abolition of social rewards and punishments, it neither holds out any hope to the industrious, nor excites any apprehension among the indolent. On the other hand, we must admit that the vigorous assertion of Socialistic principles has led men to a more liberal and generous view of humanity as a whole. Moreover, it has forcibly called public attention to numerous evils that have sprung up along with the modern development of industry, for which no remedy—not even a name-had been provided; to the vital inter-dependence of all classes; and to the inadequacy of the individual or 'selfish' system, as it has been called, to redress the wrongs or cure the evils that inevitably spring from its own unchecked operation.

!

SOCIAL SCIENCE, a name that has of late years been given to the study of all that relates to the social improvement of the community. A society, called 'The National Association for the Promotion of Social Science,' was first organised at a meeting which was held at Lord Brougham's residence in Grafton Street, in July 1857, to consider the best means of uniting together all those interested in social improvement. Lord Brougham was appointed President; and at the request of the deputation from Birmingham, it was agreed that the first meeting should be held in that town. The annual meetings have been held each year at a different place. The Association was at first divided into five departments-Jurisprudence, Education, Punishment and Reformation, Public Health, and Social Economy-this last dealing with questions regarding capital, labour, and production; an additional department was added in 1860, under the title of Trade and International Law. The Association aims at promoting improvement in all matters falling within these departments, by means of bring; ing together, for free discussion, societies and individuals interested in the social problems which they involve. The amount of discussion has, at all the meetings, been very considerable, though there is some diversity of opinion as to whether the results have materially aided in solving the more difficult questions of the day.

SOCIETY ISLANDS, a small archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, in lat. 16°-18° S., long. 148°155° W., is formed of two clusters of islands, about 70 miles apart, and, in former times, politically distinct; both are now under French rule. Exclusive of islets, the group is formed of 13 islands-Tahiti or Otaheite, Maitia, Eimeo, Maiaoiti, Tetuaroa, Huaheine, Raiatea, Otaha, Borabora, Marua, Tuba, Lord Howe's Island, and Scilly Island. Area estimated at 450 sq. m. (Almanach de Gotha, 1865), pop. 13,847, according to the Annuaire de Taïti. All the islands closely resemble each other in appearance. They are mountainous in the interior, with tracts of low-lying and extraordinarily fertile land occupying the shores all round from the base of the mountains to the sea. They are surrounded by coral reefs, are abundantly watered by streams, and enjoy a temperate and agreeable climate. Almost every tropical vegetable and fruit known is grown here; but agriculture is in a backward state. The animals are those usually found in the South Sea Islands. The inhabitants belong to the Malay race, are affable, ingenious, and hospitable, but volatile and sensual. The practice of tattooing has almost wholly disappeared, and the native costume now closely resembles that of civilised nations. There are now no native manufactures, these having been entirely superseded by imported goods. Cocoa-nut oil, oranges, lime-juice, kauri shells and pearl shells are the principal articles exported; and cocoa-nuts are the general article of barter throughout the islands for calicoes, cotton cloth, knives, cordage, groceries, &c., which are imported chiefly from Tahiti. The exports from Tahiti, the principal island, amounted in 1863 to £21,960, and the imports to £75,888.

Tahiti is said to have been visited as early as 1606. Captain Cook reached it in 1769, and discovered many of the other islands of the archipelago, to which he gave the name of S. I., in honour of the Royal Society of London. In 1797, the first missionship fitted out by the newly formed London Missionary Society arrived at Tahiti. After 19 years of apparently fruitless labour, the influence of the missionaries began to be felt, and soon afterwards became so powerful as to be almost paramount. A quarrel between the Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries, who thought it better to enter upon ground already occupied by Protestants than to take up new ground for themselves, occasioned the interference of France in favour of the latter, and the island of Tahiti was taken possession of in the name of Louis Philippe, by a strong French force in 1844. All the possessions of the native ruler-who, however, still enjoys nominal authority-were afterwards placed under the protection of France, and the S. I., though still nominally a protected state, may be considered as virtually a French colonial possession. Many of the Protestant missionaries left the island in consequence of the interference of the French authorities with their labours. Some, however, remained, and the congre gations continued to meet. An application to the British government procured a concession on the part of the French government of some of the rights of religious liberty, which had been taken away by the local authorities.

SOCIETIES are associations of individuals for the promotion or accomplishment of some particular object. Such objects are numerous, including the promotion and investigation of almost every well recognised branch of science, art, and literature; the diffusion of knowledge, religion, and morality; intercourse between those of the same profession or trade; the removal of legal grievances; mutual aid in case of distress; and an abundance of other aims, which are either beneficial to the general public, or to the members of the society alone. In Great Britain, any number of persons may agree to constitute themselves a society, if the object of their union is legal. Those whose objects are SOCINUS, the name of two celebrated heresiscientific or literary are occasionally called Aca- archs, uncle and nephew, who have given name to a demies (q. v.), and under this or their own special sect of Christians, the Socinians, better known, names will be found notices of the chief societies however, as Unitarians (q. v.).-LELIUS SOCINUS, at present existing. 'Secret' societies for the the elder of the two, was born at Siena, in Tusaccomplishment of some object which involves cany, in 1525, and belonged to a family that had a subversion of existing political arrangements, long been distinguished for its cultivation of literaspring up from time to time in France, Ireland, ture and science. His father, Marianus Socinus, Italy, &c. was an able lawyer, and designed his son for the

SOCLE-SOCRATES.