Water or Milk. Butter. Sugar. Flavouring. Eggs. Caraway seeds.

quarts.

lbs.

lbs.

in ounces.

Great care must be taken in the manipulative part of the process to incorporate the ingredients in a systematic manner. Thus, the butter is mixed with the flour in a dry condition, and then the water or milk added; and when eggs are used, they are thoroughly beaten up with water, and the sugar (if the latter is required) and the egg-paste added to the dough, which has been previously prepared with butter, or without butter. The various kinds of B. in the preparation of which yeast is employed, present a more spongy aspect than the unyeasted biscuits. Occasionally a little sesquicarbonate of ammonia (volatile salt) is added, to assist in raising the dough, and make a lighter biscuit. There are three principal varieties of the yeast or fermented B., and the following table gives the ingredients used in their manufacture from a sack of flour, or 280 lbs. :

galls.

lbs.

101

4 1 4 to 5

35

25 to 30

...

5

Oliver, Reading, Cheltenham, 101 Soft or spiced B. are prepared from flour, with much sugar, a great many eggs, some butter, and a small quantity of spices and essences. The eggs eggs tend to give a nice yellow cream-colour to the B., which is occasionally imitated by the admixture of a chromate of lead (chrome yellow); but this is dangerous, and has given rise to several cases of poisoning Several of the soft or spiced B. are referred to in the following table, a sack, or 280 lbs., being the amount of flour employed in each instance;

The extent to which B. are now consumed may be learned from the fact, that several of the largest biscuit-manufactories each prepare and throw into market every week from 30,000 to 50,000 lbs. weight of B. of various kinds. One of the largest and most complete biscuit-manufactories in England is that of Carr at Carlisle, whose biscuits, sold in tin boxes, are well known. Another bakery of this kind is

that of Harrison of Liverpool.

BISE'GLIÉ, a fortified town of Naples, in the province of Bari. It is built on a promontory in the Adriatic, about 21 miles west-north-west of Bari, the district around being studded with handsome villas and country-houses, and famous for its production of currants, which are considered equal to those of the Ionian Islands. The vine and olive are also cultivated in the neighbourhood. B. has a cathedral, numerous churches, two monasteries, a hospital, and ecclesiastical college, &c., with the ruins

BI'SHOP, the title of the highest order of clergy in the Christian Church. The name is in the Saxon, biscop, and is from the Greek episcopos, an overseer. The Athenians used to send officers called episcopoi to their subject states. The word was adopted by the Romans; and Cicero speaks of himself as an episcopus in Campania; it was also applied by them to the officers who inspected the the functions of a B. in the primitive church, which provision-markets. There are two theories as to may be described as the episcopalian and the Presbyterian theories.

Church of Christ were his apostles; for the office According to the former, the first bishops in the whereunto Matthias was chosen is termed (Acts i. 20) episcope-i. e., an episcopal office, which being spoken expressly of one, agreeth no less unto them of them all, calls them bishops.' The form of governall; and therefore St. Cyprian, speaking generally ment at first established by the apostles was, that the laity or people should be subject to a college of ecclesiastical persons appointed for that purpose in every city. These, in their writings, they term sometimes 'presbyters,' sometimes bishops.' Thus St. Paul to the elders at Ephesus says: Take heed to the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath made you overseers'-i. e., bishops. This explains the Presbyterian view of the office. But as the apostles could not themselves be present in all churches, and as in a short time strifes and contentions arose, they appointed, after the order began at Jerusalem, some one president or governor over the rest, who had his authority established a long time before that settled difference of name took

And

place whereby such alone were called bishops; and therefore, in the book of Revelations, we find that in the 2d c., says: We are able to number up they are entitled 'angels.' St. Irenæus, martyr them who by the apostles were made bishops.' In Rome, he tells us,, they appointed Linus; and in Smyrna, Polycarp. St. Ignatius witnesses that they made Evodius B. of Antioch. St. Jerome says: All bishops are the apostles' successors;' and St. Cyprian terms bishops 'præpositos qui apostolis vicaria ordinatione succedunt' (presidents who succeed to the apostles by vicarious ordination). Hooker says, in his usual judicious manner: 'Such as deny apostles to have any successors at all in the office of their apostleship, may hold that opinion without contradiction to this of ours, if they will explain themselves in declaring what truly and properly apostleship is. In some things, every presbyter, in some things only bishops, in some things neither the one nor the other are the apostles' successors.' he adds, what fairly states the Episcopal theory on this subject: The apostles have now their true successors, if not in the largeness, surely in the kind of that episcopal function whereby they had power to sit as spiritual ordinary judges, both over laity and over clergy, where churches Christian were established.' We find, also, that throughout those cities where the apostles did plant Christianity, history has noted a succession of pastors in the seat of one, not of many; and the first one in every rank we find to have been, if not some apostle, yet some apostle's disciple. By Epiphanius, the bishops of Jerusalem are reckoned down from St. James to his own time; and Tertullian, writing in the 2d c., has the following: 'Let them shew the beginnings of their churches, let them recite their bishops, one by one, each in such sort succeeding other that the first B. of them have had for his author and predecessor some

apostle, or at least some apostolical person who persevered with the apostles; for so apostolical churches are wont to bring forth the evidence of their estates.' The judgment of the church of England as to the primitive existence of bishops is to be found in the preface to the ordination service drawn up in the reign of Edward V., where it is said: 'It is evident unto all men diligently reading the Holy Scriptures and ancient authors, that from the apostles' time there have been these orders of ministers in Christ's church-bishops, priests, and deacons.'

According to the other or Presbyterian theory of bishops, the origin and general history of the institution are thus sketched. In the earliest churches, no traces of a hierarchy, it is affirmed, are to be found. The superintendents or directors appointed over the first churches by the apostles, or chosen by the members of the congregations, were unquestionably styled indifferently presbyters or bishops-the former title being borrowed from the Jewish synagogue, the superintendent or director of which was called the Elder (Gr. presbyter); the latter (episcopos) being familiar to the heathen converts as the title of a civil office corresponding in function to that of a Christian pastor. But this original equality did not last long. As new churches multiplied, those formed round the original church, though each having its own bishop or presbyter, remained in confederacy; and in the meetings of the pastors to regulate the common affairs, one must of necessity preside, most likely determined by age, superior piety, or other qualification. From this simple circumstance, as is indicated by Clemens Alexandrinus in the beginning of the 3d c., sprang the habit of looking upon one of the bishops as superior to the others; and this superiority, at first personal and accidental, soon came naturally to be regarded as attached to the B. of a particular congregation. In this case the word B. came to signify an overseer of pastors rather than an overseer of people. The monarchical form of state government favoured this tendency, and converted the president of a presbytery into the privileged superintendent of his brother-pastors. The assumption was resisted by the presbyters at first, but from the middle of the 5th c., Episcopacy, or the domination of bishops, continued to gain the upper hand over Presbyterianism, or equality of all pastors.

In the 3d c., bishops appear still dependent on the advice of their presbyters, and the consent of the people, and shared with the former the office of teaching and the cure of souls. As yet their exclusive privileges or functions were limited to confirmation, ordination of ministers, consecration of sacred things, settlement of secular differences among Christians, and management of the revenues of the church. But the tendency to subordination and unity did not rest here. Among the bishops, at first all equal, those of the larger and more important cities began gradually to acquire a superiority over those of inferior cities. When Christianity was made the religion of the Roman empire, the bishops became more and more monarchical, and put themselves on the footing of ecclesiastical princes. The chief cities of the larger civil provinces rose to be seats of extensive dioceses, the bishops of these assuming the distinctive titles of patriach, metropolitan, papa-titles of courtesy that had long been applied to all bishops; while the less important provinces, with their capitals and bishops, became subordinate. Among these provincial bishops, again, three, from obvious causes, acquired a prominence that cast all the rest into the back-ground-namely, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Rome. The beginnings of the ascendency of the Roman B. are discernible as

early as the end of the 2d century. While ancient Rome sought her secular dominion more in the south and cast, modern ecclesiastical Rome turned herself chiefly to the nations of the west and north; and round the B. of Rome has grown a power-the Roman Catholic Church-not less important than that of imperial Rome.

In the Roman Catholic Church the episcopal office is the foundation of the whole system. Christ's apostles are held to have transferred their functions to the episcopacy as a body. Every B., therefore, exercises within his own diocese, first, the jus magisterii-i. e., the right of maintaining and propagating the orthodox faith; and second, the jus ordinis, or regulating of the sacred and mysterious rights of the priestly office, some of which are transferred to the inferior clergy, as jura communia, while others remain the privileges of the bishop (jura propria). Among episcopal prerogatives, in addition to those already mentioned as assigned to them in the 3d and 4th c., are anointing of kings, consecration of abbots, preparation of the chrisma, &c. They have also the management of the church property in their respective dioceses, and the oversight of all ecclesiastical institutions. Election of the office of B. rests generally with the presbyters of the diocese assembled in chapter, with the sanction of the secular power and of the pope. This is the case in Prussia. Where the sovereign is a Catholic, the appointment is mostly made by him, but subject to papal approbation. At consecration, which requires the presence of three bishops, the new B. takes an oath to the sovereign and to the pope, and signs the articles of belief, on which he receives the episcopal insignia-the mitre (q.v.); crosier (q.v.), or staff; a gold ring, emblematic of his marriage to the church; the cross upon the breast; the dalmatica (q. v.), tunic, pallium (q. v.), and peculiar gloves and chaussure; and being enthroned, as formal installa、 tion into office, he then pronounces the blessing on the assembled people. In the discharge of his office, the B. has a number of subordinate assistants; sometimes, in case of age or weakness, a coadjutor, but ordinarily deans, archdeacons, &c. (q. v.).

In the Greek church, the office of B. is essentially the same, though less influential. Greek bishops, however, are always chosen from the monkish orders, and generally from the archimandrites-i. e., abbots or priors.

As Protestantism met with its chief resistance from the bishops, and, besides, laid the chief stress on doctrine rather than on church order, the episcopal order in most of the reformed churches, either disappeared or sank into comparative insignificance. Of the continental Protestant churches, episcopacy has kept the foremost hold in Sweden and Norway, The Scandinavian bishops acceded to the reformation in 1531 only on compulsion from Gustavus Vasa, who confirmed them in their revenues and prerogatives. The B. of Upsala is primate, and has the prerogative of crowning the king, consecrating the other bishops, &c. The bishops are named by the king out of three proposed by the chapters. They preside in consistories, hold synods, visit the churches, examine and ordain ministers, consecrate churches, and watch over purity of doctrine and the property of the church. They have seats in parliament, and wear the pallium, mitre, crosier, and cross. There are only six bishops in Sweden and Norway, with an additional B. of the order of the Seraphim.

In Denmark the Catholic bishops opposed the reformation, and were (1536) deposed by Christian III., and their extensive possessions confiscated. The king appointed in their stead a general superintendent and 9 Protestant bishops, with a fixed stipend. They are under the secular Government,

In Protestant Germany, the episcopal dignity and rights passed into the hands of the secular sovereigns, who, down to quite recent times, assumed the title of supreme bishops, and exercised the prerogatives of such. When the sovereign, as in Saxony, was of a different confession from the majority of his subjects, the episcopal authority was delegated to a minister. The bishoprics, however, were gradually secularised, and with the nominal or titular bishops of Osnabrück and Lubeck (1803) the old episcopal dignities became almost extinct on the Protestant soil of Germany. The Lutheran Church, however, never formally abolished the office of B., and Melanchthon endeavoured to get it expressly recognised. In Prussia, accordingly, the title of B. has had a fluctuating fate. The bishops in office at the time having acceded to the reformation in 1525, were continued; but in 1554 the revenues were confiscated, and the duties assigned to superintendents. In 1587 this last remnant of the episcopal office also disappeared; till Frederick I. conferred the title of B. on two of his court-preachers on occasion of his coronation. At their death it again ceased, and was not revived until at the peace-festival in 1816 Frederick-William III. raised two clergymen to the dignity of bishops. One of them, the B. of Königsberg, received in 1829 the title of Evangelical Archbishop. Several have since received the title of B., along with that of superintendent-general, entitling them to the first place in the consistories, a certain civil rank, insignia, and salary. Of the other German states, only Nassau has followed the example of Prussia, by naming (1818) a B. for the united evangelical churches of the duchy. Elsewhere, the episcopal authority, mostly in very limited form, is exercised by consistories, ministries of worship, superintendents-general, inspectors, &c.

In the Church of Scotland, and other Presbyterian churches on the Geneva model, the episcopal office is not recognised. Roman Catholic Scotland was divided into eleven dioceses or bishoprics.

secration is the same in the case of bishops and archbishops, for each archbishop is also B., and has his own diocese. The B. is elected by the chapter of his own Cathedral church by virtue of licence from the crown. The laity used to take part in the election, but from the tumults that arose, the different sovereigns of Europe took the appointment, in some degree, into their own hands, by reserving to themselves the right of confirming these elections, and of granting investiture to the temporalities which now began to be annexed to these diguities. This right was acknowledged in the Emperor Charlemagne by Pope Hadrian I., 773 A. D., and the Council of Lateran. The right of appointing to bishoprics is said to have been in the crown of England even in Saxon times. But when, by length of time, the custom of electing by the clergy only was fully established, the popes began to object to the usual method of granting these investitures, which was per annulum et baculum-i. e., by the prince delivering to the prelate a ring and pastoral staff or crosier. In the 11th c., Pope Gregory VII. published a bull of excommunication against all princes who should dare to confer investitures. There were long and eager contests occasioned by this papal claim, but at length the matter was compromised, the Emperor Henry V. agreeing to confer investiture for the future, per sceptrum; and the kings of France and England consented to receive only the homage for the temporalities, instead of investing them by the ring and crosier, the pope keeping in his hands the power of confirmation and consecration. This concession was obtained from Henry I.; but King John, in order to obtain the pope's protection against his barons, gave up, by a charter to all monasteries and cathedrals, the free right of electing their prelates. This grant was confirmed in Magna Charta, and was again confirmed by statute 25 Edward III. But by statute 25 Henry VIII., the ancient right of nomination was in effect restored to the crown. sovereign, on the vacancy being notified, sends to the dean and chapter a letter missive, or congé d'élire, containing the name of the person to be

The

The practice and history of the Church of England in the matter of bishops may be given somewhat more in detail. The B. is the head of the clergy in his diocese; he ordains them, whereby he calls them into existence as ecclesiastical persons; he institutes them to benefices, and licences them to cures, and to preach; visits them, and superintends their morals; and enforces discipline, for which purpose he has several courts under him, and can suspend or deprive them for due cause.

Over the laity he exercises a general pastoral authority, but they are more particularly brought under his notice at the time of their confirmation. The style, title, and privileges of the B. are inferior to those of the archbishop (q. v.). He is said to be installed in his bishopric; he writes himself, By Divine Permission; and has the title of Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God; and he may retain six chaplains. A bishop must be at least 30 years of age; the reason for which is, that Christ began his ministry at that age. For many centuries after the Christian era, the B. received all the profits of his diocese, and paid salaries to such as officiated under

appointed by the act, or if the archbishop or B. appointed for the purpose refuse to confirm, invest, and consecrate the B. elect, the recusants incur the penalty of a præmunire (q. v.). A bishop is not consecrated more than once, and he cannot be deposed, as it is supposed that the order itself cannot absolutely be taken from him; he may, however, be deprived, as was done to the B. of Clogher in 1822; he may also resign his see; and he may be removed from one see to another, which is called translation; but this practice is now less frequent than it used to be. The Dean and Chapter of Canterbury claim it as an ancient right of that church, that every B. of the province is to be consecrated in it, or the archbishop to receive from them a licence to consecrate elsewhere; and it is said that a long succession of licences to that purpose are regularly entered in the registry of that church. When elected and confirmed, a B. may exercise all spiritual jurisdiction, but he is not completely B. until consecration. Bishops, upon their election, become peers of the realm, and are summoned to the parlia ment as well as the other nobles; but the right under which they sit there, whether in respect of their baronies, or by usage and custom, is a matter of uncertainty. It appears, however, that the bishops sat in the Wittenagemote, under the Saxon monarchs, as spiritual persons; for they were not barons until William the Conqueror turned their possessions into baronies, and subjected them to the tenure of knights' service. The bishops created by