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BE'LGIUM, one of the smaller European states, | Moselle, but_attains only the moderate elevation of consists of the southern portion of the former kingdom of the Netherlands (as created by the Congress of Vienna). In the time of the Romans, it formed a part of Gallia Belgica.

Geography and Statistics.-Belgium lies between lat. 49° 27′ and 51° 30′ N., and between long. 2° 33' and 6°5′ E. It is bounded on the N. by Holland; on the E. by Dutch Limbourg, Luxembourg, and Rhenish Prussia; ; on the S. and S. W. by France; and on the N. W. by the North Sea. Its greatest length, from north-west to south-east, is 173 English miles; and its greatest breadth, from north to south, 112 English miles. The whole area is 11,313 square miles. The following table gives a list of the provinces in Belgium, with the area, population, and chief town of each:

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B. is the most densely peopled country in Europe, the population being about 433 to the square mile; and in the particular provinces of East Flanders, Brabant, Hainault, and West Flanders, respectively, not less than 705, 664, 591, and 524 to the square mile. The rural population bears to that of the towns a proportion of about 3 to 1.

Physical Aspect.-B. is, on the whole, a level, and even low-lying country; diversified, however, by hilly districts. In the south-east, a western branch of the Ardennes highlands makes its appearence, separating the basin of the Maas from that of the

2000 feet. In Flanders the land becomes so low, that in parts where the natural protection afforded by the downs is deficient, dikes, &c., have been raised to check the encroachments of the sea. In the northeast part of Antwerp, a naturally unfertile district named the Campine, and composed of marshes and barren heaths, extends in a line parallel, with the coast. The once impassable morasses of the Morini and the Menapii, which stayed the progress of Cæsar's legions, are now drained, and converted into fertile fields, surrounded by dense plantations, which make the land at a distance look like a vast green forestthough, when more closely regarded, we see only numerous dwellings interspersed among fields, canals, and meadows.

Hydrography, Climate, Agriculture, &c.-The abundant water-system of B. is chiefly supplied by the rivers Scheldt and Maas, both of which rise in At France, and have their embouchures in Holland. Antwerp, the Scheldt, which, like the Maas, is navigable all through Belgium, is 32 feet deep, and about 480 yards wide. Its tributaries are the Lys, Dender, and Rupel. The Maas, or Meuse, receives in its course the waters of the Sambre, the Ourthe, and the Roer. These natural hydrographical advantages are increased by a system of canals which unite Brussels and Louvain with the Rupel, Brussels with Charleroi, Mons with Condé, Ostend with Bruges and Ghent, and this last place with Terneuse. According to the resolution passed by the government in 1842, the long postponed project of cutting canals through the Campine district was at length commenced, and has been very advantageous to the spread of agriculture. A large portion of the Campine seems destined to perpetual barrenness-a dreary, silent, irreclaimable waste; but wherever it has been possible to rescue a patch from the stubborn heath or the relentless sand, there agricultural colonies have been planted, and cornfields shine, and pastures brighten in the heart of the immemorial wilderness. The climate of B., in the plains near the sea, is

BELGIUM.

prevailing in the Celtic districts of Gallia Belgica. This characteristic has remained steadfast to the present time. It is impossible not to recognise in the cloth-weaving Atrebate the ancestors of the industrious race who gradually extended themselves towards the east and north of Belgium. During the early commerce of Europe, when trade was secure only within walled towns, Flanders was the principal seat of productive industry; and its recent separation from Holland has also been indirectly favourable to the development of its internal resources. A state which, like B., begins its career under a burden of debt, which is shut in between nations who possess important ports and colonies, and which is peopled by races not yet sufficiently blended to constitute a perfect nationality, must, before all other things, develop its internal, material resources. This has been well understood in Belgium. Since the commencement of its independent career, it has devoted its attention. almost exclusively to those branches of industry and commerce by which its future greatness must be supported.

cool, humid, and somewhat unhealthy; but in the may be traced back to a very early period, even to the higher south-east districts, hot summers alternate | time of the Romans, who noticed the love of traffic with very cold winters. April and November are always rainy months. These varieties of climate are favourable to a greater variety of produce than the neighbouring country of Holland can supply. The Ardennes districts yield a large supply of wood; while the level provinces raise all kinds of grain-wheat, rye, barley, oats, &c., leguminous plants, hemp, flax, colza, tobacco, hops, dye-plants, and chicory. Belgium contains upwards of 7,000,000 acres, of which one-half is arable, rather more than one-fifth in meadow and pasture, the same in woods and forests, and not above 500,000 acres lying waste. Some hundreds of acres are devoted to vineyards, but the wine produced is of an inferior quality. The forests of Ardennes abound in game and other wild animals. Good pasturage is found on the slopes and in the valleys of the hilly districts, and in the rich meadows of the low provinces. Gardening occupies not less than 130,000 acres; indeed, it has been said that the agriculture of B. is just gardening on a large scale, so carefully and laboriously is every inch of soil cultivated. The spade is still the principal instrument used. In the Campine, the care of bees is very productive, and the cultivation of the silkworm is encouraged. There are valuable fisheries on the coast, which employ about 200 boats. B. is famous for its horses, and in 1846 contained 294,537 of these animals, 1,203,891 horned cattle, and 662,508 sheep.

the sea.

Geology. The geological formations of B. are closely associated with those of France and Britain. The greater portion of the country is covered with Tertiary deposits. A line drawn across the course of the Scheldt, by Mechlin, along the Demer and Maas, will have on its northern and north-western aspect a tract of tertiary deposits, bounded northwards by In these tertiary strata the different geological periods are fully represented; but only the second, containing the Pleiocene deposits, is rich in fossils. The Secondary deposits occupy an extensive tract in the centre of Belgium, between the Scheldt and the Demer. The most important district, economically, is the south-western, consisting of Paleozoic rocks-Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous. These beds have a very complicated structure, from the numerous and extensive flexures and folds they have undergone, and these are often accompanied with great upward shifts, by which beds of many different ages are brought to the same level.

Mineral Products.-B. is rich in minerals, which, next to its abundant agriculture, constitute the chief source of its national prosperity. The four provinces in which they are found are Hainault, Namur, Liege, and Luxembourg. They include lead, copper, zinc, calamine, alum, peat, marble, limestone, slate, iron, and coal. Lead is wrought, but only to a small extent, in Liege; copper in Hainault and Liege; manganese in Liege and Namur; black marble at Dinant; slates at Herbemont; and calamine principally at Liege. But these products are insignificant compared to the superabundance of coalfrom anthracite to the richest gas coal-and iron, in which B. ranks next to England. In 1866, the number of coal-pits was 286; and the amount of coal 'put out' was 12,774,662 tons, valued at upwards of £6,041,200. In 1857 the amount of iron ore was between one and two million tons, and of the prepared iron, more than half a million. The number of workmen employed during the same year in the Belgian coal-fields was 72,577. B. also possesses several mineral springs, of which the most celebrated is the chalybeate water of Spa, visited by thousands both from the Old World and the New.

The modern industrial character of the Belgians

Manufactures.-The chief manufactures are linen, woollen, cotton, silk, lace, leather, and metals. The great seats of the linen manufacture--recently revived after a long depression-are_Courtray and Bruges, in West Flanders; Ghent, in East Flanders; Brussels, in Brabant; Mechlin, or Malines, in Antwerp; and Tournay, in Hainault. The number of linen pieces annually produced is about 900,000. The lawn and damask fabrics of Bruges are celebrated, as well as the lace made in and near Brussels, Malines, Louvain, and Bruges, which sometimes commands a price of £40 per yard. But the Belgian hand-spun yarn, though superior in quality, cannot maintain its ground against machinery. Verviers, Liege, Dolhaim, Ypres, Doperinghe, Limbourg, Bruges, Mons, Thuin, and Hodimont are centres of the woollen manufacture. Ypres alone employs 50,000 workmen in this branch of industry. Brussels and Tournay have large carpet manufactures, and Hainault supplies a considerable amount of hosiery. The principal manufactures of cotton are at Ghent and Lokeren, in East Flanders; Bruges and Courtray, in West Flanders; Malines, Louvain, and Anderlecht, in Brabant; Tournay and Mons, in Hainault; and also at Antwerp. The separation of B. from Holland had at first a prejudicial effect on this as on other trades; but the opening of the navigation of the Scheldt, the intersection of the country by railways and canals, and, in consequence, the rapid and extensive communication with other countries, have revived the activity of the cotton trade, which now gives employment to between one and two hundred thousand workmen. Maestricht, which belongs to Holland, is one of the chief seats of manufactures of leather; but this trade is also carried on at Limbourg, Liege, Stadelot, Namur, Dinant, and especially at Bruges and Ghent. The manufacture of gloves has made great progress in recent years. Metallurgy also has rapidly increased in productiveness since 1816, when Cockerill introduced into B. the English method of smelting iron with coke. The principal seats of the metal manufacture are Liege, Namur, Charleroi, Mons, and their neighbourhoods. There are large ordnance foundries at Liege and Malines, and celebrated makers of firearms and machinery in Liege; nail-making at Charleroi; tinware, &c., at Liege and in Hainault; wire and brass factories at Namur; zinc manufactures at Liege; lead and shot factories at Ghent; the gold and silver goods of Brussels and Ghent may also be noticed as important branches of Belgian industry. Flax is

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one of the most extensive and valuable products | articles of export are far more various than those of of B., no fewer than 400,000 persons being employed import. The value of Belgian exports in 1866 in its culture and preparation. Besides these, we amounted to 747,350,000 pounds; in 1865, to 756, may mention the straw-bonnet manufacture in the 420,000 pounds; and in 1857, to 450,704,000 francs; neighbourhood of Liege; the paper fabrics of the in 1863, 533,657,281 francs. Among the principal provinces Liege, Namur, and Brabant; the glass- articles of export are coal, flax, linen, woollen, works of Hainault, Namur, Val-St.-Lambert, and and cotton goods, glass, firearms, and nails. More Brabant; the porcelain, &c., of Tournay, Brussels, than a third of the whole quantity is consigned Mons, and Ghent; and sugar-refineries at Antwerp, to France, and half of the remainder to the ZollBruges, Ostend, Ghent, &c. In 1857, the number of verein, England, and Holland. The unit of the steam-engines employed in the several manufactures Belgian monetary system is the franc, equal in value of B. was 3499. to the French franc.

It cannot be said that intellectual improvement has kept pace with the material prosperity of B., though in this respect also there has been a perceptible advance. The great hindrances to a thorough development of the national intellect have been the lack of political independence, which has drawn off the most precious energies of the country to foreign centres of activity; and the variety and confused mixture of dialects, whereby the true Flemish individuality has been driven into the background. An independent national literature, acting as the bond of a pure national unanimity, was not possible, under such unfavourable conditions, to which may be added the facilities afforded for supplying the people with cheap reprints of foreign works. The Flemish element-the most important-seems indeed to have become conscious of its capabilities in respect to literature; but a genuine expression of the entire Belgian mind will first become possible when the Walloon element also begins to develop a freer form of speech along with its own peculiar modes of thought. The Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences at Brussels is at the head of several other unions for scientific purposes. Among the most celebrated names in Belgian literature and science, may be mentioned-Quetelet in mathematics, Altmeyer the historian, Fetis the musical critic, Conscience the Flemish poet and novelist, Willems the philologist, and Baron and Moke in literary history and criticism. Painting and architecture formerly flourished in the wealthy old towns of Flanders; but after the brilliant epoch of Rubens and his pupils, a long period of dulness followed. In modern times, a revival of art has taken place, as may be proved by the names of the painters, Wappers, De Keyser, Gallait, De Biefve, Verboekhoven, &c.; the sculptors, W. Geefs, Simonis, Jehotte, Fraikin, &c.; the engravers, Calamatta, Brown, and Meunier; and the medallists, Wiener and Hars.

The natural wealth and industrial resources of B. have always been more or less modified by the political relations of the country. In the middle of the 13th c., B., with Bruges as its chief seat of manufactures, had surpassed all its neighbours in industry, and had established a flourishing commerce with the Italians. After the discovery of America, Antwerp took the place of Bruges, and was regarded as a northern Venice. But the unhappy period of Spanish oppression and the war in the Netherlands deeply depressed Belgian commerce, which suffered still more at the peace of Westphalia, when Holland monopolised the navigation of the Scheldt. The river was again opened at the close of the 18th c., when the French had invaded the Netherlands, and Napoleon caused the harbour of Antwerp to be restored and enlarged. At the cost of Amsterdam, Belgian commerce received a new impulse by the union of B. with Holland, as settled by the congress of Vienna; but scarcely were hopes revived, when the revolution of 1830 changed the prospects of the country. The treaty signed in London, April 19, 1839, gave to Holland the right to levy a toll of two-and-sixpence per ton on all vessels navigating the Scheldt. The privilege of navigation on the inland waters between the Scheldt and the Rhine was purchased by B. for an annual payment of £50,000. In June 1839, this privilege was virtually taken away by the government of Holland, and, in 1843, with additional expense to B., the new treaty of navigation was ratified by both parties. During this crisis preceding the development of a free commerce, B. had not neglected her internal resources. The Société de Commerce de Bruxelles, the Banque de Belgique, and other associations for the extension of trade, had been formed; and May 1, 1834, the government adopted the scheme for a railway-system the most complete of any on the continent. The centre of the Belgian net-work of railways is Malines, whence lines are carried out The Belgian school-system suffered for more than in all directions. The north line goes to Antwerp ten years under the freedom of teaching allowed by and its harbour; the west, by Ghent and Bruges, the constitution, which was chiefly made use of by to Ostend; the south-west, by Brussels and Mons, the wealthy Catholic clergy. The consequence was to Quiévrain and the borders of France, not far that education assumed a divided and sectarian from Valenciennes; and the east, by Louvain, character. Since the state, however, has exercised Tirlemont, Liege, Verviers, and extending to the a general superintendence over the universities, confines of Prussia. The entire length of these main gymnasia, and elementary schools, a higher style of lines in 1866 was nearly 1400 miles. The entire education has prevailed. The two universities of cost of the permanent way and building of the state Ghent and Liege, united with a school of archirailways up till 31st December 1866 was 9,515,876|tecture and mining; ten national schools (Athénées), pounds. The receipts of the main railways during in which a classical is combined with a commercial the same year were 1,532,751 pounds; the expenses, education; fifty schools preparatory to these (Ecoles 3,102 pounds, showing a net profit of 749,649 pounds. In connection with this great scheme of internal communication, the government gave at tention to commercial treaties and other measures calculated to supply the want of colonial trade. The colony founded in the district of St. Thomas by a treaty with the republic of Guatemala has passed through a long series of difficulties, but now promises good results.

In 1866 the number of ships which entered Belgian ports was 4568, and the number which left, 4478; their their united tonnage, 2,096,997 tons. The

moyennes); two seminaries for teachers at Lierre and Nivelle, besides the superintendence now exercised by the state over the institutions formerly maintained by communes and provincial corporations, and, above all, over the primary schools-all this forms a suffi cient counterpoise to the numerous schools supported by private individuals and religious bodies. Among the latter may be noticed the Catholic High School of Louvain, founded in 1836, and conducted under strict ecclesiastical discipline; the free university of Brussels; and the gymnasia of the Jesuits at Namur, Brugelette, Brussels, and Liege. Journalism in B.

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has been greatly extended by the abolition of the stamp-duty (1848), and 180 daily newspapers are now published, including 56 Flemish papers; but only a few have obtained a proper degree of respectability and influence.

Population and Religion.-The population of B. is of mixed German and Celtic origin. The Flemings (a branch of the Teutonic family), and Walloons (a branch of the Celtic family), distinguished by their peculiar dialects, are still conspicuous among the pure Germans, Dutch, and French. The French language has gained the ascendency in educated society, and in the offices of government; but the Flemish dialect prevails numerically in the proportion of 4 to The Catholic religion is the prevailing form. There are only about 10,000 or 12,000 Protestants. and 1400 Jews. The supreme Catholic dignitaries of B. are the Archbishop of Mechlin, and the five diocesan bishops of Bruges, Ghent, Tournay, Namur, and Liege.

3.

The government of Belgium is a limited constitutional monarchy, and was established in its present form by the revolution of 1830. The legislative body consists of two chambers-that of the senate, and that of the representatives. A responsible ministry, with the king as president, is at the head of all public affairs, and its measures are carried into effect by the governors of the several provinces. The ministry includes departments for home affairs, foreign affairs, finance, justice, public works, and war. The administration of justice retains the forms of French jurisprudence. The total revenue of B. for 1864 was 157,682,790 francs; the total expenditure was 150,943,138 francs. The national debt, May 1, 1865, amounted to 655,486,047 francs.

the heiress of Burgundy-through the latter of whom the Netherlands passed into the possession of the House of Hapsburg. After the abdication of Charles, these provinces passed into the hands of Philip II., and by the law of primogeniture, should have remained united with Spain. But scarcely had the peace of Château-Cambresis (1559) put an end to the encroachments of France, when the religious disputes of the Reformation, and the despotic measures of Philip, excited in the provinces a long and bloody war for civil and religious freedom, which ended in the independence of the Northern or Teutonic Netherlands, while in the southern or more Celtic provinces (now included under B.), both the sovereignty of Spain and the rule of the Roman Catholic Church continued. In 1598, B. was ceded by Philip II. to his daughter Isabella, wife of the Archduke Albert, when it became a distinct and independent kingdom. Several measures for the better regulation of internal affairs, especially in the administration of justice, and for the revival of industry, which had been injured by the unenlightened policy of Philip, were projected. Unfortunately, Albert died childless in 1621, and B. fell back into the hands of Spain, and became involved in the wars attending the decline of the Spanish monarchy. Peace was concluded chiefly at the cost of Belgium. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), the counties of Artois, Thionville, and other districts, were given to France. Subsequent conquests by the same powerful neighbour secured to it, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), the possession of Lille, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Courtray, and other places. These were partly restored to B. at the peace of Nimeguen; but as a compensation, Valenciennes, Nieuport, Cambray, St. Omer, Charlemont, and other places, were given up, and only partially regained by B. at the peace of Ryswick in 1697. After the conclusion of this treaty, at the close of the reign of Charles II. of Spain, some endeavours were made to create prosperity in B. by a new system of taxation and customs, and by the construction of canals, to counteract the injury done to its commerce by the closing of the navigation of the Scheldt; but these projected improvements were interrupted by the Spanish War of Succession, which was not concluded until the peace of Utrecht in 1713. By this treaty, B. was given to Austria, Holland retaining the privilege of garrisoning the most important fortresses on the French frontier, and also of exercising a monopoly of the navigation of the Scheldt. The 'Belgian Commercial Company' at Ostend, founded by Charles VI. in 1722, fell in 1731-another sacrifice to the cupidity of Holland. During the Austrian War of Succession (1744), almost the whole country fell into the hands of the French; but was peaceably restored to Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).

The organization of the army is based on the law of 1845, and consisted, in 1866, of 73,718 rank and file, viz.: 56,550 infantry, 8202 cavalry, 6700 artillery, 1690 engineers, and 576 train. The Civic or National Guard, organized since 1848, includes about 90,000 men. The whole navy of B. consists only of the brig Duc de Brabant, with 20 guns; the schooner, Luise Marie, of 10 guns, two war-sloops, and five steamers, which ply as packet-boats between Ostend and Dover. The importance of B. in a military point of view affords a reason for the maintenance of fortifications at Antwerp, Ostend, Nieuport, Ypres, Tournay, Mons, and other places.

History of Belgium to 1830.-In the time of the Romans, the name Gallia Belgica was given to the Southern Netherlands lying on the confines of Gaul and Germany. It was peopled by Celtic and German tribes. The latter were predominant in Batavia and Friesland, and, under the rule of the Franks in the 5th and 6th c., gained the ascendency also in the southern districts. Until the close of the 11th c., the feudal system which arose at the fall of the Carlovingian dynasty, prevailed in the Netherlands, where the several southern provinces were B. remained undisturbed by the Seven Years' made duchies and counties. The county of Flan- War, and during the long peace following the treaty ders, superior to all the others in industry and of Aix-la-Chapelle, prosperity was restored. Especommerce, maintained, during a long struggle, its cially during the mild reign of Maria Theresa of independence against France; and, in 1385, when Austria, measures of public improvement were prothe male line of the Counts of Flanders expired, was moted by Prince Charles of Lorraine, governor of annexed to the powerful House of Burgundy, which, the Belgian provinces. The reign of Joseph II., son in the beginning of the 15th c., also gained posses- and successor of Maria Theresa, began in disputes sion of all the other provinces of the Netherlands. | with Holland. The latter country consented to The rulers of Burgundy aimed at founding a powerful the abolition of the Barrière-contract, in conseunited state between France and Germany, and therefore endeavoured to repress the free republican spirit which manifested itself in the rapidly rising towns. The work of establishing unlimited sovereignty was interrupted by the fall of Charles the Bold, and the partial division of his territories; but was continued by the Emperor Charles V., the grandson of the Emperor Maximilian, and Maria,

quence of which, several important fortresses were demolished, though the emperor failed in his endeavour to make free the navigation of the Scheldt. But the errors of his internal administration were the serious feature of his policy. By his innovations, he offended the religious sympathies of the people, and violated the legal privileges of the states, of which he had made the strict preservation

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