BUDDHISM.

good works, and display their faults. As the outward expression of this sentiment of humility, Gautama instituted the practice of confession. Twice a month, at the new and at the full moon, the monks confessed their faults aloud before the assembly. This humiliation and repentance seems the only means of expiating sin that was known to Gautama. Confession was exacted of all believers, only not so frequently as of the monks. The edicts of Piyadasi recommend a general and public confession a least once in five years. The practice of public confession would seem to have died out by the time of Hiouen-Thsang's visit to India.

world, Gautama's moral nature was better than his | Humility, again, holds a no less prominent place logic, or rather than the perverse assumptions from among Buddhist graces than it does among the which his logic starts; and as he felt strongly- Christian. The Buddhist saints are to conceal their what all men have felt more or less-that these things are essentially right and good, he takes it for granted that they must contribute to what was in his eyes the chief good-escape from existence, or Nirvana. In delivering his precepts, the Buddha considers men as divided into two classes-those who have embraced the religious life (Sramanas), and those who continue in the world, or are laymen. These last are considered as too much attached to existence to feel any desire or have any hope of emancipation, at least at this stage. But there are certain precepts which it is necessary for all to obey, that they may not bring greater misery upon themselves in their next births, and rivet the bonds of existence more indissolubly. There are ten moral precepts or 'precepts of aversion.' Five of these are of universal obligation-viz., not to kill; not to steal; not to commit adultery; not to lie; not to be drunken. Other five are for those entering on the direct pursuit of Nirvana by embracing the religious life: to abstain from food out of season-that is, after mid-day; to abstain from dances, theatrical representations, songs, and music; to abstain from personal ornaments and perfumes; to abstain from a lofty and luxurious couch; to abstain from taking gold and silver. For the regular ascetics or monks, there are a number of special observances of a very severe kind. They are to dress only in rags, sewed together with their own hands, and to have a yellow cloak thrown over the rags. They are to eat only the simplest food, and to possess nothing except what they get by collecting alms from door to door in their wooden bowl. They are allowed only one meal, and that must be eaten before mid-day. For a part of the year, they are to live in forests, with no other shelter except the shadow of a tree, and there they must siting and aiding parents, on which the Buddha laid on their carpet even during sleep, to lie down being forbidden. They are allowed to enter the nearest village or town to beg food, but they must return to their forests before night.

Besides the absolutely necessary aversions and observances' above mentioned, the transgression of which must lead to misery in the next existence, there are certain virtues or 'perfections' of a supererogatory or transcendent kind, that tend directly to 'conduct to the other shore' (Nirvana). The most essential of these are almsgiving or charity, purity, patience, courage, contemplation, and knowledge. Charity or benevolence may be said to be the characteristic virtue of Buddhism-a charity boundless in its self-abnegation, and extending to every sentient being. The benevolent actions done by the Buddha himself, in the course of his many millions of migrations, were favourite themes with his followers. On one occasion, seeing a tigress starved and unable to feed her cubs, he hesitated not to make his body an oblation to charity, and allowed them to devour him. Benevolence to animals, with that tendency to exaggerate a right principle so characteristic of the East, is carried among the Buddhist monks to the length of avoiding the destruction of fleas and the most noxious vermin, which they remove from their persons with all tenderness.

There are other virtues of a secondary kind, though still highly commendable. Thus, not content with forbidding lying, the Buddha strictly enjoins the avoidance of all offensive and gross language, and of saying or repeating anything that can set others at enmity among themselves; it is a duty, on the contrary, especially for a sramana, to act on all occasions as a peacemaker. Patience under injury, and resignation in misfortune, are strongly inculcated.

Such are the leading features of the moral code of the Buddha, of which it has been said, that 'for pureness, excellence, and wisdom, it is only second to that of the Divine Lawgiver himself.' But the original morality of Buddhism has, in the course of time, been disfigured by many subtilties, puerilities, and extravagances, derived from the casuistry of the various schools of later times; just as the casuistry of the Jesuits, for instance, perverted many of the precepts of Christianity. The theory on which the Buddha founds his whole system gives, it must be confessed, only too much scope to such perversions; for, on that theory, truth is to be spoken, self to be sacrificed, benevolence to be exercised, not for the sake of the good thus done to others, but solely for the effect of this conduct on the soul of the actor, in preparing him for escape from existence. To teach men the means of arriving at the other shore,' was another expression for teaching virtue; and that other shore was annihilation. On this principle, the Buddhist casuist can, like the Jewish, render of none effect the universal law of charity and the duty of respect

such stress. Thus, a Bikshu--that is, one who has engaged to lead a life of self-denial, celibacy, and mendicancy, and is thus on the high road to Nirvana -is forbidden to look at or converse with a female, lest any disturbing emotion should ruffle the serene indifference of his soul; and so important is this, that 'if his mother have fallen into a river, and be drowning, he shall not give her his hand to help her out; if there be a pole at hand, he may reach that to her; but if not, she must drown.'- Wilson.

Contemplation and science or knowledge (i. e., of the concatenation of causes and effects) are ranked as virtues in Buddhism, and hold a prominent place among the means of attaining Nirvana. It is reserved, in fact, for abstract contemplation to effect the final steps of the deliverance. Thought is the highest faculty of man, and, in the mind of an Eastern philosopher, the mightiest of all forces. A king who had become a convert to Buddhism is represented as seating himself with his legs crossed, and his mind collected; and 'cleaving, with the thunderbolt of science, the mountain of ignorance,' he saw before him the desired state. It is in this cross-legged, contemplative position that the Buddha is almost always represented-that crowning intellectual act of his, when, seated under the Bo-tree (q. v.), he attained the full knowledge of the Buddha, saw the illusory nature of all things, broke the last bonds that tied him to existence, and stood delivered for evermore from the necessity of being born again, being considered the culmination of his character, and the highest object of imitation to all his followers.

'Complete' Nirvana or extinction cannot, of course, take place till death; but this state of preparation for it, called simply Nirvana, seems

BUDDHISM.

BUDDHISM-BUDDING.

It would be superfluous to attempt here any formal refutation of the religion of the Buddha. To the readers of this work, the fundamental errors of the theory will be apparent enough. By giving prominence to the extravagances and almost inconceivable puerilities and absurdities with which the system has been overloaded, it would have been easy to make it look sufficiently ridiculous. But this is not to depict, it is to caricature. It is only too common for Christian writers to treat of heathen religions in such fashion. The only fair-the only true account of any religion, is that which enables the reader to conceive how human beings may have come to believe it and live by it. It is this object that has been chiefly kept in view in the preceding meagre sketch of a vast subject. Those who wish to pursue it further are referred to Spence Hardy's Manual of Buddhism (Lond. 1853), consisting chiefly of translations from the sacred books used in Ceylon; and to an admirable digest of all that is now known of the subject, by J. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, entitled Le Bouddha et sa Religion (The Buddha and his Religion. Paris, 1860).

system of belief that seeks to supplant other, God planted Christianity upon earth, he took a systems, finds itself enticed to present something branch from the luxuriant tree, and threw it down to rival and outdo them, if possible, in every to India.' point. Even the Christian church, in the middle ages, adopted with this view many of the rites and legends of paganism that were quite inconsistent with its own character; merely casting over them a slight disguise, and giving them Christian names. Prayer, too, is natural to man-an irrepressible instinct, as it were, and had to be gratified. And then the inconsistency in uttering prayers when there is no one to hear or answer, glaring as it appears to us, is by no means great to the Eastern mind. Prayers, like other sacred formulas, are conceived less as influencing the will of any superior being to grant the request, than as working in some magical some magical way-producing their effects by a blind force inherent in themselves. They are, in short, mere incantations or charms. Even the prayers of a Brahmin, who believes in the existence of gods, do not act so much by inclining the deity addressed to favour the petitioner, as by compelling him through their mysterious potency-through the operation of a law above the will of the highest gods. The Buddhist, then, may well believe that a formula of prayer in the name of the Venerable of the world' will be potent for his good in this way, without troubling himself to think whether any conscious being hears it or not.

BUDDING, sometimes called INOCULATION, is an operation analogous to GRAFTING (q. v.), or indeed may be regarded as merely a particular mode of grafting, in which a leaf-bud is used as a graft instead of a young shoot. It is generally preferred for trees which are apt to throw out much gum when wounded, as the plum, cherry, peach, apricot, and stone-fruits in general, also for roses and many other flowering shrubs. The time for it is when the

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The element in Buddhism which more than any other, perhaps, gave it an advantage over all surrounding religions, and led to its surprising extension, was the spirit of universal charity and sympathy that it breathed, as contrasted with the exclusiveness of caste. In this respect it held much the same relation to Brahmanism that Christianity did to Judaism. It was, in fact, a reaction against the exclusiveness and formalism of Brahmanisman attempt to render it more catholic, and to throw off its intolerable burden of ceremonies. Buddhism did not expressly abolish caste, but only declared that all followers of the Buddha who embraced the religious life were thereby released from its restrictions; in the bosom of a community who had all equally renounced the world, high and low, the twice-born Brahman and the outcast were brethren. This was the very way that Christianity dealt with the slavery of the ancient world. This opening of bud is perfectly formed, about or a little after its ranks to all classes and to both sexes--for midsummer. The subjoined cut represents the women were admitted to equal hopes and privileges various parts in budding: a is the bud cut out, with with men, and one of Gautama's early female dis- a shield of bark attached to it; b, the stem, with a ciples is to be the supreme Buddha of a future cycle slit in the bark to receive the shield attached to the -no doubt gave Buddhism one great advantage bud; c, the bud inserted and the leaf cut away. over Brahmanism. The Buddha, says M. Müller, The bud to be employed is taken, by means of 'addressed himself to castes and outcasts. He a sharp knife, from the branch on which it has promised salvation to all; and he commanded his disciples to preach his doctrine in all places and to all men. A sense of duty, extending from the narrow limits of the house, the village, and the country, to the widest circle of mankind, a feeling of sympathy and brotherhood towards all men, the idea, in fact, of humanity, were first pronounced by Buddha.' This led to that remarkable missionary movement, already adverted to, which, beginning 300 B. C., sent forth a succession of devoted men, who spent their lives in spreading the faith of Buddha over all parts of Asia.

In the characteristic above mentioned, and in many other respects, the reader cannot fail to remark the striking resemblance that Buddhism presents to Christianity, and this in spite of the perverse theory on which it is founded. So numerous and surprising are the analogies and coincidences, that Mrs. Speir, in her book on Life in Ancient India, 'could almost imagine that before

grown generally a branch of the former year— a small portion of the bark and young wood being taken with it, extending to about half an inch above and three-quarters of an inch below the bud. The woody part is then separated from the bark and bud; but care is to be taken that the bud itself is not injured, which, however, is always the case when the operation is attempted before the bud is sufficiently matured, and is indicated by a hollow left at the bud when the wood has been removed. A longitudinal and a transverse cut are made in the bark of the stock intended to receive the bud, in the form of the letter T; the bark is raised on both sides, for which purpose the handle of the budding-knife generally terminates in a thin ivory blade, and the bud is inserted, the bark attached to the bud being cut across so as to join exactly to the transverse cut in that of the stock, that the bud may be nourished by the descending sap. The leaf in

BUDDLEA-BUENOS AYRES.

the axil of which the bud grew is cut off. The newly inserted bud is for a time preserved in its place, and prevented from too much access of air by strands of bass-matting. The process just described is distinctively called shield-budding, and is the most common method of budding. Other methods are occasionally employed, as reversed shield-budding, in which the incisions are in the form of the letter T reversed, which is sometimes practised with trees of the orange family and others in which there is a very great flow of descending sap; and scallop-budding, in which a thin slip of bark is removed from the stock, and a similar slip bearing the bud is placed upon it, the upper edge and one of the lateral edges being made to fit exactly. Scallop-budding may be performed in spring, and if it fails, the ordinary method may be resorted to in summer. Budding is also sometimes performed by taking a tube of bark with one or more buds from a small branch, and placing it upon a branch of similar thickness in the stock, from which

the bark has been removed.

BUDDLE'A, a genus of shrubs of the natural order Scrophularinec, of which many species are known, all natives of the warmer parts of the world, and some of them much admired for their beautiful flowers. B. Neemda has received the praise of being one of the most beautiful plants of India. B. globosa, a native of Chili, with downy branches, lanceolate leaves, and globose heads of orange-coloured flowers, is hardy enough to endure the climate of most parts of England, and has become a very common ornament of gardens, but in Scotland it needs the protection of the green

house or frame.

BUDE BURNER BURNER and BUDE and BUDE LIGHT. The Bude Burner, so called from the name of the residence of the inventor, Mr. Gurney, consists of two, three, or more concentric argand burners, each inner one rising a little above the outer. On the same principle, a powerful light is produced by a number of flat flames disposed in concentric circles like the petals of a rose.-The Bude Light, also the invention of Mr. Gurney, depends upon introducing oxygen into the centre of the flame instead of air, as in the common argand. A light of the most dazzling brilliancy is thus produced. The House of Commons is lighted by this means, the brilliancy being softened by the intervention of a ceiling of ground-glass.

is always an important, sometimes a very exciting occasion; as, for instance, Sir Robert Peel's adoption of an income tax in 1842, and his legislation for free trade in 1846. Another instance is Mr. Gladstone's reduction of the wine-duties and treaty with France in 1860.

BUDOS HEGY, a mountain belonging to the Carpathians, on the eastern border of Transylvania, in lat. 46° 12′ N., and long. 25° 40' E. It is quite isolated, steep, and of conical shape, densely wooded on the lower slopes, and has an elevation of 7340 feet. It has numerous caverns, that emit sulphurous exhalations, and from its base issue strong sulphur springs.

BUDWEIS, a town of Bohemia, situated on the Moldau, about 77 miles south of Prague. B. is well built, is partially fortified, and has an old cathedral, manufactures of woollens, muslins, damasks, and its connection with the Danube at Linz, by saltpetre, dyes, &c. Its position on the Moldau, and its connection with the Danube at Linz, by means of a horse-railway, the first constructed in Germany, give B. a considerable transit trade. Pop. 10,700. In the neighbourhood, is an old feudal fortress, the Schloss Frauenberg, one of the seats of Prince Schwarzenberg, and a fine new Gothic castle also belonging to the same nobleman. Here he keeps herds of wild swine, and in grand huntingmatches, as many as 300 are killed in a day.

BUEN AY'RÉ in Spanish, or BON AIR in French, an island in that subdivision of the West Indies which runs parallel with the coast of Venezuela. It is in lat. 12° 20' N., and long. 68° 27′ W., being 30 miles to the east of Curaçao, which, like itself, belongs to the Dutch. B. A. produces cattle and salt. It measures 20 miles by 4, and contains about 2500 inhabitants. It has a tolerable harbour on its leeward or south-west side.

BUE'NOS AY'RÉS, a city of South America, on the right bank of the Plata, which here, at a distance of 150 miles from the open sea, is 36 miles across. It stands in lat. 34° 36' S., and long. 58° 24' W. Its disadvantages as a maritime town are great; the flood-tides of the ocean, when backed by easterly winds, being apt to make the estuary overflow its banks; and again, when westerly winds prevail, the estuary loses both width and depth. Monte Video, on the opposite shore, possesses a better harbour, and is nearer to the Atlantic, nor can it be doubted that, but for the greater facilities of B. A. in carrying on an inland trade, the former town would have proved a dangerous rival. Steam is rapidly placing both upon more equal terms. Of the trade, however, with Chili by Mendoza and the Andes-a trade which must always be carried on by land-B. A. must still command the monopoly. So familiar had B. A. become with landcarriage on an extensive scale, that its merchants, when blockaded in front during a war with Brazil, established, as it were, a new port of entry in the mouth of the Salado or Saladillo, at a distance. of at least 150 miles. As a city, B. A. labours under some peculiar disadvantages. Its supplies of fresh water are received from the Plata in rudely constructed carts. Its immediate territory, The term, The Budget,' is in Britain, from long purely alluvial, is almost as destitute of timber usage, applied to that miscellaneous collection of as of stones-the latter being brought either as matters which aggregate into the annual financial ballast from Europe, or as freight from Martin statement made to parliament by the Chancellor of Garcia, an island on the opposite side of the estuthe Exchequer. It contains two leading elements- ary; and the former from the province of Entre a statement how the nation's account of charge and Rios, and from the islets of its bordering rivers, discharge stands in relation to the past, and an the Uruguay and the Parana. Fuel, too, is almost explanation of the probable expenditure of the as scarce as building materials-peach-trees and ensuing year, with a scheme of the method in the withered thistles of the prairies yielding the which it is to be met, whether by the existing or only indigenous supplies. B. A., which appears to new taxes, or by loan. The statement of the budget | deserve its name of good air, or rather good airs,

BU'DGET, from the same source as the French bougette, means a small bag, and has been used metaphorically to express a compact collection of things, as a budget of news, a budget of inventions, and the like. Water-budgets or buckets were a very honourable blazon on a coat-armorial, as being generally conferred in honour of some valiant feat for supplying an army with water. Guillim, in his Display of Heraldry, thinks the three mighty men in David's army who broke into the host of the Philistines, and drew water from the well of Bethlehem, 'deserved to have been remunerated with such armorial marks on their coat-armours for their valour.'

BUENOS AYRES-BUFFALO.

contains 122,000 inhabitants-about a fourth of, and storm from the west; and besides the periodical whom are of European birth or descent. Among those of European birth, the vast majority are natives of France and of the United Kingdom. B. A publishes newspapers both in French and in English as regularly and successfully as those in the vernacular tongue. The city, measuring 2 miles by 14, is partitioned into rectangular blocks of about 150 yards square by granite-paved streets, most of the houses being flat-roofed, and only one story high. The principal buildings are the cathedral and its dependent churches, Episcopalian and Presbyterian chapels, a foundling hospital, an orphan asylum, the university, a military college, several public schools, and the government offices; there are also printing establishments, and manufactories of cigars, carpets, furniture, and boots and shoes. In 1866 the exports were valued at $22,312,400, and the imports for the same year at $31,218,000. The exports consisted of precious metals, hides, beef, wool, skins, tal-immigration from Europe has been not only tolerated low, and horse-hair; and the imports of cottons, linens, woollens, jewellery, perfumery, and deals. B. A. was founded in 1535; but having subsequently been twice destroyed by the Indians, it ought, in reality, to date only from 1580. In the beginning of the present century, it achieved, with very little aid from home, two triumphs over England. In 1806, one British force, which had just captured the city, was obliged to surrender; and in 1807, another, which attempted to recover the place, was repulsed with heavy loss; and there can be but little doubt that the consciousness of strength, which such successes over so formidable a foe inspired, mainly emboldened the colonists, three years afterwards, to throw off the yoke of comparatively feeble Spain.

BUENOS AYRES, a province of the Argentine Republic, with which it was re-united June 6th, 1860. It extends itself along the Atlantic, from the mouth of the Plata to that of the Rio Negro on the 41st parallel; on the N.E., it is washed by the Plata and the Parana as far as the Arroyo del Medio; on the N. and the adjacent section of the W., it touches the province of Santa Fé. Elsewhere, its borders cannot be defined, constantly advancing, by slow and perilous steps, into the domain of the aborigines, for here the contest is not with the wilderness itself, which is a boundless prairie, but with its tenants, who, having an unlimited supply of horses for all purposes, are secured, in their every foray, alike against famine and fatigue. Its area is estimated at 63,000 square miles, with a population of 450,000. Besides the existing province of the name, it at one time comprised Uruguay or Banda Oriental, Paraguay, Bolivia, and the Argentine Confederation, being originally an appendage of Peru, under the immediate command of a captaingeneral, and becoming, in 1775, a separate viceroyalty of itself. Though the first three of these four divisions broke off chiefly in connection with the revolutionary struggle, yet the fourth concontinued, down to 1853, to recognise the city of B. A. as its head; and even during the interval down to 1860, the inland states have been endeavouring, both by war and by diplomacy, to re-annex the maritime province to the Argentine Confedera

tion.

The country approaches so nearly to a plain, that most of the rain which falls is either absorbed or evaporated, or lost in salt-lakes, comparatively little drainage entering the Parana or the Plata. The climate, though on the whole healthy and agreeable, is yet by no means steady or uniform. Every wind, in general, has, to a remarkable degree, its own weather-sultriness coming from the north, freshness from the south, moisture from the east,

heats of every summer, successive years of more than ordinary drought occur. Agriculture, properly so called, is followed chiefly in the more temperate and humid districts of the eastern coast; while the interior presents almost uninterrupted pasturage to countless herds of horses and cattle. Under these circumstances, the business of grazing and hunting combined occupies or interests the great bulk of the population-a business that renders the province, whether as to the disposal of its productions or as to the supply of its wants, peculiarly dependent on that external commerce, which, throughout the whole of Spanish America, has naturally been identified with political freedom. Let it be added, that the Indians are intractable, and that the Africans, few in number at best, are principally menials; and it is seen at once why, in spite of national jealousies and sectarian prejudices, by public opinion, but also encouraged by legislative enactment. Moreover, a comparatively congenial climate, as a recommendation to foreigners, has powerfully seconded the efforts of liberality and patriotism. It is perhaps mainly owing to this cause, which is common alike to Chili and to B. A., that these two states, notwithstanding their full share of wars and troubles, have so decidedly outstripped the other fragments of the same colonial empire in all the elements of liberty and civilisation. Hence their higher importance in the eyes of Europeans in general, and of Englishmen in particular. Ten colonies of European families, numbering nearly 8000 individuals, were established in the A. C., and in the first six months of 1867 17,000 more arrived. In 1868, for the first time in the history of the republic, the election and installation of a President passed off without disturbance.

BUFFALO (Bos Bubalus), an animal of the ox tribe, very important and useful to man. It is a native of the East Indies, where it has been long domesticated, and from which it was carried to Egypt and to the south of Europe. It was introduced into Italy about the close of the 6th c. A. D., and is now very generally used as a beast of draught and of burden in that country, as it is also in India.

The B. is larger than the ox, and its limbs are stouter. Its form is more angular and clumsy; the head is larger in proportion to the size of the body; and the forehead is rather convex, and higher than broad; the dorsal line rises into a considerable elevation above the shoulders; the dewlap and the tail resemble those of the ox; the horns are large, slightly compressed, recline towards the neck, and have their points turned up. It is characteristic of the B., when walking or running, to carry the head with the muzzle projecting straight forward, and the horns laid back on the shoulders. The hair is irregular and briskly, often very thin, so that the smooth brown hide smooth brown hide shines with an unpleasant polish in the sunlight.' In this as in other respects, the animal is adapted for marshy situations, which it naturally affects; preferring for its food the rank coarse herbage which they afford, delighting to immerse itself in water till only its head appears above the surface, in which condition it will remain for hours, and often enveloping itself in mud as a protection against insects. On account of these propensities, the buffaloes used as beasts of burden in India are seldom laden with any goods liable to be spoiled by water, as the animal is always ready to take an opportunity of lying down with his load in any river or pond which presents itself. Italy, the B. seems nowhere more at home than in the Pontine Marshes and the pestilential Maremma.

In