The very regions where malaria is most prevalent seems to be those most adapted to its constitution. The B. is a very powerful animal, much more powerful than the ox, and capable of dragging or carrying a far heavier load. The female yields a much greater quantity of milk than a cow, and of excellent quality. It is from B. milk that the ghee or semi-fluid butter of India is made. The hide is greatly valued for its strength and durability, but the flesh is very inferior to that of the ox.

The B. exhibits a considerable amount of intelligence. In a state of domestication, it is capable of becoming very docile. In the south of Europe, it is generally managed by a ring passed through the cartilage of the nose, but in India by a mere rope. The Indian driver rides upon a B.; but these animals keep so closely together as they are driven along, that, if necessary, he walks from the back of one to that of another perfectly at his ease. In a wild state, the B. is savage and dangerous, and even in domestication it is apt to resent injury. The native princes of India make buffaloes and tigers fight in their public shows; and the B. is more than a match for the tiger, even in single combat. The appearance of a tiger excites a herd of buffaloes, much as we see oxen excited by the approach of a dog; and if his safety is not secured by flight, they kill him, tossing him from one to another with their horns, and trampling him with their feet.

The B. is used in some parts of the east in the shooting of waterfowl, being trained to the sport, and sold at a considerable price. The sportsman conceals himself behind the B., which, being a familiar sight, is not alarming to the birds.

The CAPE B. (Bos Caffer) is generally regarded as a distinct species. It seems never to have been reduced to the service of man, although there is reason to believe it to be very capable of domestication. The horns are very large; they spread horizontally over the top of the head, and are then bent down laterally, and turned upwards at the point. The head is carried, as by the common B., with projecting muzzle and reclining horns, but the bases of the horns nearly meet on the forehead, where they are from eight to ten inches broad. The length of a full-grown Cape B. is about 8 feet from

escape. The B. is still found in large herds in the interior of South Africa, but in Cape Colony, where it was once plentiful, it has now become comparatively rare. The Buffalo of the Anglo-Americans is the American Bison. See BISON.

BUFFALO, a city of Erie co., N. Y., at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie, lat. 42° 53′ N., long. 78° 55′ W., being 300 miles W. of Albany by rail, 460 miles N. W. of N. York, and 22 miles S.S.E. of Niagara Falls. B. has railway connections with Albany via the N. Y. Central, with the city of N. York by means of the Erie R. R. and branch from Corning, and by the Pennsylvania and Erie and branches with Philadelphia. With the cities of the lakes, B. is connected by the Lake Shore R. R., and the Great Western through Canada and its extensions in Michigan. The city has a front of 24 miles on the lake and 24 miles on the Niagara river, and rises to an extensive plain, 50 to 60 feet above the water. It is, in the main, handsomely built, with broad, straight streets, ornamented with shade trees. Among the principal buildings are the City hall, two Court-houses, markets, Custom-house, City penitentiary, State arsenal, B. University, hall of Young Men's Association, Society of Natural Sciences, Law Library, Historical Society, Fine Arts Gallery, Young Men's Christian Association, and Female Academy.

B. sustains 18 newspapers, etc., 6 of which are issued daily, and 8 weekly. The system of public schools is second to that of no other city. There are 32 school districts, one high school, and numerous primary schools, at which upwards of 16,000 pupils attend, maintained at an annual expense of more than $100,000.

The manufactures of B. have attained very considerable magnitude, among which those of iron, leather, agricultural implements, distilled spirits, flour, and oil refining are most prominent. The iron establishments are among the most perfect in the country, and supply not only the home demand, but send large quantities of their products to the east. The ore from which it is made is derived from the Lake Superior mines, which shipped, in 1869, 633,238 tons of iron ore and 39,000 tons of pig metal, valued at nearly $5,000,000. In 1869, there were in B. 31 grain elevators, capable of storing 7,415,000 bushels, and having a transfer capacity of 2,883,000 bushels in 24 hours. Twelve flouring mills manufactured, in 1869, 278,423 barrels of flour; 1,882,904 gallons of high wines were distilled, and 620,227 barrels of beer were produced. The internal tax and customs revenue for 1869 amounted to $3,591,000. B. had, in 1869, 8 banks, with an aggregate capital of $2,440,000, 6 savings banks, and numerous insurance companies and agencies. Though the harbor of B. is one of the best on the lakes, and its basins capacious, its commerce has been declining since 1865, when it employed 13,444 vessels, of 7,032,593 tons, and 145,864 men. In 1869, but 10,534 vessels, of 4,091,204 tons, and 106,253 men, belonged to the port. B. is no longer the grand terminus of the lake trade, competition among the great railroad lines and the removal westward of the chief grain-producing areas having diverted much of her commerce to other ports. In 1869, B. imported 37,014,628 bushels of grain, of which about 19,000,000 were wheat and 11,500,000 were corn-a vast increase over the business of 1839, when the imports were but 1,117,232 bushels. but a decline of 12,947,865 bushels from the receipts of 1866. The present terminus of the Erie Canal is at Black-Rock Pier, and is comprised in the harbor of B., which includes Buffalo Creek, Blackwell Canal, and Ohio and Erie basins. The lumber import of B. amounted to 225,000,000 feet, besides an enormous amount of laths, shingles, and staves. The imports from Canada, in 1869, were $2,488,255, and the ex

ports to the same but $305,000. The canal imports in 1869 were $30,524,959, and the exports $50,648,827. The aggregate by railroad cannot be ascertained. In Oct., 1868, an industrial exhibition was held in B. The population, in 1840, was 18,213; in 1850, 42,621; in 1860, 85,500, and according to the census returns in 1870 it was 117,715.

BUFF LEATHER is usually made out of salted and dried South American light ox and cow hides, After being limed in the usual way, they are unhaired and rounded, so that only the best part of the hide is made into buff leather. The grain and flesh being then scraped or cut off, the true cuticle, which is of a flexible fibrous nature, alone remains. The hide is next sprinkled over with cod-oil, and placed in the stocks, where it is worked for about 15 minutes. Having been taken out and partially dried, it is again submitted to a similar process of oiling and stocking; and during the first day, these operations may be repeated six times, decreasing daily for about a week, when one oiling and stocking in a day is sufficient. The hides are then placed in a stove, and subjected to a process called 'heating off,' after which they are scoured and rendered free off,' after which they are scoured and rendered free from oiliness by being soaked in a strong lye of carbonate of potash. They are next worked well in the stocks, hot water being poured copiously upon them until the water runs off pure. Having been dried, they are subjected to a process called grounding-i. e., they are rubbed with a round knife, and also with puzice-stone and sand, until a smooth surface is produced. The leather, which is very pliant, and not liable to crack or rot, is now ready for the market, and is generally used for soldiers' belts and other army purposes.

During the early part of this century, the principal seat of the B. L. manufacture was in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, one manufacturer turning out, previous to the battle of Waterloo, about 1300 hides per week. In peaceable times, the demand for B. L. is comparatively small, and the manufacture is now almost confined to London and the neighbourhood, where the raw material is most readily procured, and the demand for the manufactured article is greatest. The natural colour of the leather is light-yellow, but for some purposes it is bleached white. The precise chemical operation of the oil in the process of the manufacture is rather obscure, but as no glue can be got from hide that has been made as no glue can be got from hide that has been made into buff, the gelatine of the hide must have entered

into combination with some of the constituents of the oil, and had its nature completely changed.

BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE,

one of the most famous naturalists and writers of

the 18th c., was born at Montbard, in Burgundy, September 7, 1707. He studied law at the college of Jesuits at Dijon, but showed so marked a predilection for astronomy and mathematics, that his father allowed him to follow his own inclinations.

study, and by savans as play-work. B. first con ceived the idea of making it attractive to the first of these classes, and of securing for it, at the same time, the respect of the second. His plan was assuredly comprehensive enough, since he aimed at nothing less than a collection of all the separate known facts of physical investigation, and a systematic arrangement of these, to assist the author in forming a theory of nature; but B. possessed neither task. Endowed, however, with a brilliantly rhetothe science nor the patience necessary for such a rical imagination, and always inclined to deliver himself from doubts and ignorance by sparkling hypotheses, the elaboration of which cost him little trouble, he contrived to produce a work which, if not severely scientific in its method, at least shone with what many then conceived to be the brightest literary lustre. However, it is not to be denied that many of his views are very ingenious, although later Natural History of B. made an epoch in the study researches have completely exploded them. The of the natural sciences, though it has now little or natural phenomena were opposed by Condillac, who, no scientific value. His attempted explanations of with Helvetius, Diderot, D'Alembert, and others, also ridiculed, with a certain degree of justice, the excessive pomp of style used by Buffon. most insignificant part of B.'s treatise is the mineralogy, for which he was quite unqualified by the deficiencies of his chemical, mathematical, and mical arrangement of the mammalia was executed physical knowledge. The systematic and anatoby Daubenton, the colleague of Buffon. B.'s works passed through numerous editions, and several were translated into most of the languages of Europe. Générale et Particulière, in 36 volumes (Par. 1749— The best complete edition is the Histoire Naturelle 1788). After receiving several high honours, being elevated to the rank of Comte de B. by Louis XV., and treated with great distinction by Louis XVI., B. died in Paris, April 16, 1788. In person and carriage, B. was noble; as a Parisian academician, and a self-complacent, theoretical naturalist, dressed in courtly style pursuing his pleasant studies in the allées of the Royal Garden, and largely participating in the vices of his time, B. was quite a model of a French philosopher of the 18th century. His son, Henri Leclerc, Comte de B., born 1764, was attached, at the outbreak of the revolution, to the party of the Duke of Orleans, and fell under the guilotine. His last words were: Citoyens, je me nomme Buffon.'

The

The

Italian buffo (from buffa, a farce) is the name given BUFFOO'N (Fr. bouffon), a low jester. Latinity of the middle age, buffa meant a slap on to a comic singer in an opera. In the corrupt the cheek; and in the Italian, buffare signifies the puffing of wind through the mouth. It is probably from the favourite trick played by clowns in farces slapping them, so as to make a ludicrous explosion -one swelling out his cheeks with wind, the other that the terms buffones in Latin, buffoni in Italian, bouffons in French, and in English buffoon, were from the buffo comico; the former having greater In Italy, the buffo cantante is distinct musical talent, and sustaining a more important part, the latter having greater licence in jocoseness. The voice of a buffo cantante is generally a bass, but sometimes a tenor buffo is introduced.

derived.

BUĞ, a name applied to a large family of insects, Cimicida, of the order Hemiptera (q. v.), suborder Heteroptera, and often still further extended in its signification so as to include the whole of that sub-order, the insects of the section Geocorisa being designated land-bugs, and those of the section Hydrocorisa, water-bugs, the latter including waterscorpions, boat-flies, &c. All these insects, and particularly the land-bugs, although some of them are radiant in beautiful colours, have a strong resemblance in form and structure to the annoying and disgusting HOUSE B. or BED B. (Cimex lectularius). The statement that this insect was introduced into England with timber brought from America to rebuild London after the great fire of 1666, must be rejected as erroneous; for although it appears to have been comparatively rare in England, it was well known in some parts of Europe long before that time, and is mentioned by Dioscorides. The Bed B. is destitute of wings-an anomalous peculiarity, as the insects of its order, and even of the same family, are generally furnished with them.

a, the insect, magnified; b, its natural length; c, the head, upper side; d, labrum; e, proboscis extended; f, base of

antennæ very highly magnified.

The body is very flat, of a somewhat oval form; the whole insect is of a dirty rust colour, emits an offensive odour, and is about three-sixteenths of an inch in length; the legs are moderately long, and capable of being employed for pretty rapid motion; the antennæ are thread-like and very slender, about half the length of the body; the mouth is formed for suction alone, and is furnished with a sort of proboscis, which is three-jointed, forms a sheath for the true sucker, and when not in use is recurved under the head and thorax. The B. lurks during the day in crevices of walls, of bedsteads, and of other furniture, but is sufficiently active during the night; and when it finds opportunity, sucks blood until it distends itself. seems, however, to be capable of subsisting long without food. Young bugs resemble their parents in most things, except size and the want of elytra (q. v.), insects of this order not undergoing such marvellous transformations as those of some other orders. The best preventive of bugs in a house is scrupulous attention to cleanliness; but where the nuisance exists, it is not easily removed, and various means are employed for this purpose, of which one of the best and safest is thorough washing with spirit of turpentine, although recourse is even had to washing with a solution of corrosive sublimate. Other species of B. (Cimex) suck the blood

It

pigeons, swallows, bats, &c.; but the greater number of insects of the B. family live by sucking the juices of vegetables. A small species (Tingis pyri) which sucks the leaves of the pear-tree, is very destructive in some parts of Europe, where it is popularly called the tiger. Some of these winged wood-bugs or field-bugs are capable of inflicting very painful wounds. Flying-bugs, 'enormous and fetid,' are among the pests of India. Night is the time of their activity. Warm countries generally have winged bugs of great size and beauty; but if touched or irritated, they 'exhale an odour, that once perceived, is never after forgotten.' A winged B., as large as a cockchafer, lodges in the thatch and roofing of houses in Chili, and sallies forth at night, like the Bed B., to suck blood, of which it takes as much as a common leech.—It is worthy of notice that a species of field B. (Acanthosoma grisea), a native of Britain, is one of the few insects that have yet been observed to shew affection and attention to their young. De Geer observed the female of the species, which inhabits. the birch-tree, conducting a family of thirty or forty young ones as a hen does her chickens, shewing great uneasiness when they seemed to be threatened with danger, and waiting by them instead of trying to make her own escape.

BUGEAUD, MARSHAL, was born at Limoges, in France, October 15, 1784. In his 20th year he entered the army as a private. His conspicuous bravery in the Prussian, Polish, and Spanish campaigns gained him rapid promotion. Shortly before the fall of Napoleon, B. was made a colonel, and in 1815 commanded the advance-guard of the army corps of the Alps. He afterwards retired to his estate, but was called into public life by the July revolution of 1830. He was elected deputy for Perigueux, and gained the esteem of Louis-Philippe, who created him a marshal. In 1835, he voted against electoral reforms and universal suffrage, denounced 'the tyranny of the press,' and soon contrived to make himself very unpopular. In December 1840, he was appointed governor-general of Algiers. He immediately set about organizing the celebrated irregular force known as the Zouaves, and in a few years the French arms were everywhere triumphant over the Arab tribes. The cruelty of some of B.'s proceedings excited strong feelings of reprobation at the time, as well in France as in Europe generally. In 1844, he gained a victory over the Emperor of Marocco's forces at Isly, for which he was created Duc d'Isly. In the revolution of February 1848, Marshal B. had the command of the army in Paris, and would have dissuaded the king from signing the act of abdication; but panic made such counsel useless. Among all the friends of Louis-Philippe, Marshal B. seems to have been the only man who preserved firmness and presence of mind. When Louis Napoleon became president, he intrusted the chief command of the army of the Alps to B., who died of cholera in Paris, June 9, 1849.

BUGENHAGEN, JOHANN, surnamed Pomeranus, or Dr. Pommer, one of Luther's chief helpers in the Reformation, was born at Wollin, near Stettin, in Pomerania, 1485; studied at Greifswald, and as early as 1503 became rector of the Treptow Academy. There he lived quietly, fulfilling the duties of his office until 1520, when his religious views were changed by reading Luther's little book, De Captivitate Babylonicâ. B. was now seized, as it were, by the zealous spirit of the Reformation, and, to avoid the persecution of the Catholic party, he betook himself to Wittenberg, where his talents procured for him in succession

compare it with the account rendered by the builder; the architect being the ultimate referee. It is exceedingly important, for the sake of an amicable adjustment of accounts, that the builder should adhere scrupulously to the letter of the specifications-i. e., the covenant under which he has become bound. He can justify no departure from the specifications, on the plea that something as good has been given or done, or that he was not checked at the time by the clerk of works. Being explicitly a person employed to do a certain piece of work, in a certain way, he is in no respect entitled to substitute his own notions for those of his employers.

It may happen that a proprietor acts as his own architect, and employs a builder to execute his designs, on the understanding that he is to pay for everything according to a schedule of prices. In many instances, the builder is proprietor as well as architect, and merely carries out his own plans. Such is generally the case in the neighbourhood of London, where builders speculate in leasing land and erecting rows of dwellings for sale. This plan is greatly facilitated by the opportunity of buying every article required in house-building ready for use; such as bricks, door-steps, hearthstones, joists, flooring, doors, windows, marble mantel-pieces, slates, &c. In fact, house-building in the metropolitan district is very much reduced to a system of purchasing and putting together certain articles from manufactories and depôts. For this kind of business, there may be said to be establishments for the sale of doors and windows, as there are shops for the sale of nails, locks, and hinges.

The application of a comprehensive manufacturing system in the preparation of various parts of a building is observable most particularly in certain establishments of great magnitude. The test is this-whether the builder conducts so gigantic a trade as to warrant him in setting up a steamengine of great power, and in providing highly wrought machines for cutting and otherwise treating wood, stone, &c. When once this degree of magnitude is reached, the operations are conducted under very great advantage. The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park could never have been built at the stipulated cost, nor in the required space of time, but by the application of steam-power to work the machines which shaped and grooved the two hundred miles of sash-bars; by the resources of the largest English establishment in the glass-trade, in making one million square feet of sheet-glass; and by the skill and capital of our great iron manufactures, in rapidly producing three thousand iron columns, and more than that number of iron girders. When the late Mr. Thomas Cubitt was engaged in the vast building operations at Belgravia (a district in the west of London owned by the Marquis of Westminster), his factory on the banks of the Thames was the most complete ever known in the trade. It exemplified both the principles adverted to above the manufacture of various articles by steam-worked machinery; and the collecting of large stores of other articles made in a similar way by other firms. There was a store of drawing-room and parlour doors, a store of window-sashes, a store of streetdoors, and stores of mantel-pieces, stone and marble steps, balusters, slates, knockers, bells, and all the materials for house-building from the coarsest to the finest. There was also observed that systematic gradation of kinds and dimensions which is so much attended to in the higher kinds of machinery, and which so much expedites all operations; seeing that one particular piece would not only fit into or against another, but into or against any one of a whole class to which that other belonged. A house

built in this systematic way partakes a good deal in the nature of a large machine, in which all the parts fit together with very great accuracy. There can be little doubt that if skill and capital be judiciously applied in this way, a house ought to be better built and to cost less than if built in the ordinary unsystematic manner. It may also be mentioned here, that Mr. Cubitt was the owner of a very large brick-making establishment on the banks of the Medway, between Rochester and Maidstone, where steam-power was employed in all the operations of making bricks. Some of the great railway contractors, who have become millionaires, were originally house-builders, alive to the grand results producible by the combination of steam-worked machinery with the labour of well-organised bodies of men.

As an art, B. is of vast antiquity, and has assumed different forms, according to the necessities of mankind and the materials readily at their disposal. In ancient Egypt, Greece, and Italy, B. in stone rose to a high state of perfection, and till the present day it may be said that the greatest progress in the art is made only where stone of a manageable kind is conveniently at command. Rome, and other Italian cities; Paris, Lyon, Bordeaux, and most cities in France; Brussels, Berlin, Leipsic, Munich, Geneva, Vienna, Edinburgh, and Glasgow are noble specimens of what may be achieved in stone workable with the chisel. On the other hand, London, the greatest city within the bounds of civilisation, is built of brick; so likewise are Manchester and Liverpool; also Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and other towns in Holland; and, as a general fact, it would appear that wherever brick has to be resorted to, there the allied arts of architecture and building, as regards domestic accommodation and elegance of style, are on a poor scale. B. with stone of a superior kind is now becoming common in New York, Philadelphia, and some other American cities. It is not necessary to trace in this article the various processes embraced in the comprehensive term BUILDING ; seeing that all the materials used, and all the operations conducted, are noticed under the proper headings in the Encyclopædia.

BUILDING ACT FOR LONDON AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. See METROPOLITAN BUILDING ACT.

BUILDING LEASES. In the law of England a building lease is a demise of land for a long term of years, the lessee covenanting to erect certain houses or edifices thereon, according to specification. By the 19 and 20 Vict. c. 120, amended by the 21 and 22 Vict. c. 77, and which acts also apply to Ireland, the Court of Chancery is empowered to authorise leases of settled estates and B. L., which shall take effect in possession within one year next after the making of the same; the term for such building lease being ninety-nine years; or where the court shall be satisfied that it is the usual custom of the district, and beneficial to the inheritance to grant B. L. for longer terms, then for such term as the court shall direct. By a subsequent enactment, it is declared that the term building lease shall include a repairing lease, but such repairing lease to be for a term not exceeding sixty years.

By the 5 and 6 Vict. c. 108-passed to enable ecclesiastical persons to grant long leases for building, repairs, or other improvements-it is enacted that any ecclesiastical corporations, aggregate or sole, excepting as mentioned in the act, may, with consent of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners for England (q. v.)-to which, where the lessor is incumbent of a benefice, the consent of a patron also must