BUNSEN-BUNT.

service to the cause of enlightened Christianity, for, while in England, he was regarded by those who knew him both as the most philosophical and most reverent of lay-theologians. His chief works are: De Jure Atheniensium Hæreditario (Gott. 1813); Die Kirche der Zukunft (The Church of the Futuretranslated into English, and published by Longman), Hamb. 1845; Ignatius von Antiochien und seine Zeit (Ignatius of Antioch and his Time), Hamb. 1847; Die drei echten und die vier unechten Briefe des Ignatius von Antiochien (The Three Genuine and the Four Spurious Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch), Hamb. 1847; Egyptens Stelle in der Weligeschichte (Egypt's Place in the World's History-translated into English by Cottrell), Hamb. 1845-1857; Die Basitiken des Christlichen Roms (The Basilicas of Christian Rome), Mun. 1843; Hippolytus und seine Zeit (Hippolytus and his Time), Lond. 1851; Christianity and Mankind, Jena, 1854; Gott in der Geschichte (God in History), Leip. 1857; and Vollständiges Bibelwerk für die Gemeinde, in 18 parts, of which 16 had been published by Brockhaus of Leipzig in 1869.

Niebuhr, then Prusian ambassador, took the greatest court of England, and retired to Heidelberg. In 1857 interest in the scientific pursuits of B., and procured he was restored to the favour of the king, and in 1858 (1818) his appointment as secretary to the embassy. was made a Peer with the title of Freiherr (Baron). The residence of the king of Prussia, Friedrich He removed to Bonn in 1860, where the labours of Wilhelm III., in Rome in 1822, had a decided his wonderful mind closed in death Nov. 28th, 1860. influence on his subsequent career. In the course It must also be acknowledged that he has done of a conversation in which B. had disagreed with the king, the latter asked his views on the Prussian ritual (Agende) and hymn-book question, then much agitated. Though these views were very different from what the king had been accustomed to hear, he took them in good part, and with expression of his personal regard, requested B. to continue in the state service. On Niebuhr's departure from Rome (1824), B. conducted the embassy provisionally for a time, and was then appointed resident minister (1827). Living in intimate intercourse with Niebuhr, B. had employed the time in deepening his investigation into the philosophy of language and religion; and had made, on the one hand, the philosophy of Plato and the constitutions of antiquity; on the other, biblical inquiries, church history, and liturgies-objects of special attention. Though not within the scope of the great plan of his life, he contributed largely to the Beschreibung der Stadt Rom (Description of Rome), 3 vols. (Stutt. 1830-1843); the greater part of the topographical communications on ancient Rome, and all the investigations into the early history of Christian Rome, are by him.-The first visit of Champollion to Rome formed an epoch in B.'s antiquarian studies. He was a zealous hearer of Champollion himself, and also encouraged Lepsius (q. v.) to the study of hieroglyphics. The Archeological Institute, established in 1829, found in B. its most active supporter. When he founded the Protestant hospital on the Tarpeian Rock (1835), he also built, adjoining his own house, a place of meeting for the Institute; and laboured earnestly for the cause of Protestantism. The king of Prussia had often asked his advice in the matter of the ritual, but had not adopted it. B. then, along with the chaplain, introduced (1825) into the chapel of the embassy at Rome a liturgy modelled after his own views, and sent a report (1828) to the king of the result. The king had this liturgy printed, and wrote the preface with his own hand. This work never came into the hands of the trade; but the most part of it was embodied in the Allgemeine evang. Gesang- undGebetbuch, printed (1846) without the author's name, in the Rauhe Haus, Hamburg, which may be considered as the second edition of the Versuch eines allgemeinen evang. Gesang- und-Gebetbuchs (Attempt at a General Evangelical Hymn and Prayer Book), Hamb. 1833.

BUNT, a disease of wheat and other grains, or the parasitic fungus which causes that disease. The name B. is supposed to be a corruption of burnt, or at least derived from the same root, a derivation perhaps suggested by the analogy of Brand (q. v.). B. is also called Pepper Brand, and sometimes Smut Ball. It is one of the most common and injurious diseases of wheat, often affecting great part of a crop, although its prevalence has been greatly diminished by care on the part of farmers, and particularly by the selection of clean seed, and the dressing of the seed, before sowing, with some substance, which, without injuring its vitality, destroys that of the spores or granules of the fungus. Even washing with water has a good effect, but greater benefit is derived from dressing with salt, quicklime, chloride of lime, Glauber's salt (sulphate of soda), and quicklime, or blue vitriol (sulphate of copper). Even arsenic and corrosive sublimate are used for this purpose.

9

The parasitic fungus which causes B., or which itself bears the name of B., is Uredo caries (sec UREDO), also known as U. fœtida and U. sitophia, and which it has been recently proposed to constitute into a separate genus under the name Tilletia, on account of the want of filaments in the fully In 1841, he was sent on a special mission to developed fungus, which consists of a mere mass of London, to negotiate the erection of an Anglo- very small blackish grains or spores. This powdery Prussian bishopric in Jerusalem, and was shortly mass is very soft and almost greasy to the touch, afterwards appointed ambassador at the English and when rubbed between the fingers, gives forth court. It is understood that, on occasion of a visit a very disagreeable smell, to Berlin in 1844, he was asked to write down his which has been comviews on the question of granting a constitution to pared to that of decayed Prussia; and that in consequence he presented a fish. In their their earlier series of memorials representing the urgency for a stages, the spores are deliberative assembly, and also made a complete | attached in great numplan of a constitution closely resembling the English. bers by short stalks to In the Schleswig-Holstein question, B. strongly common trunks or filaadvocated the German view, in opposition to Den- ments, which are colourmark, and protested against the London Protocol less, slender, and brittle, Bunt (magnified): of 1850. But in the midst of all his political duties, and disappear as the B. continued unabated his literary and philosophical | spores attain maturity. b, spores, and branching stalks. pursuits, the results of which have from time to Sometimes all the grains time appeared. His views regarding the part that Prussia should act in the Eastern question not being, it is understood, in accordance with those of his court, he ceased, in 1854, to represent Prussia at the

@ a

b

a. spores in various stages;

in an ear are infected, sometimes part of them only. The infected plants are generally of more than usual luxuriance. The parasite appears before the ear is free from the sheath, and is supposed to

BUNTER SANDSTEIN—BUNTING.

enter the plant from the infected seed on its first ger- | brown on the under parts, and with a slightly forked mination, and to be propagated not only by its own tail-is frequent, particularly in low cultivated seeds or spores, but by still smaller granules from

BUNYAN-BUOY.

BUOYANCY-BURCKHARDT.

the anchor; but if it be strong, it is useful in assisting to raise the anchor, at times when the proper cable is cut or injured.

BUOY'ANCY, of ships, is the amount of weight which can be buoyed up by the hull. The B. of a vessel is proportionate to the weight of water displaced by its presence (see HYDROSTATICS), and is found in this way. The cubic feet of the part of a vessel to be immersed being known, multiply it by the weight of a cubic foot of water (62.5 Ibs.), and the product will be the weight of water displaced. From this subtract the weight of the vessel, and the result will be the B. or the weight a vessel will carry without sinking lower than the given line. It is admitted, however, by naval architects, that all the old rules concerning B., displacement, and flotation, must undergo modification by the introduction of iron ships, paddle and screw propulsion, and the increased weight of broadside. BUOY'-DUES. Buoys are under very stringent regulations, ou account of their importance to the safety of ships. The public buoys, for guiding into channels, and warning from shoals and rocks, are usually marked on the best charts relating to that particular water-way. The corporation of the Trinity House has a peculiar jurisdiction over the buoys and beacons in the Thames, and along the Essex and Suffolk coasts; as well as on other coasts in England and Wales. All ships which enter the ports within this jurisdiction pay a small sum as buoy-dues. The payment is sometimes a tonnage rate, varying from 04d. to 2d. per ton; sometimes a rate per vessel, varying from 4d. to 3s.; sometimes a payment on entering only, at others on departure as well as on entering; while some kinds of coastingvessels pay 5s. per annum, whatever may be the number of voyages. From the Thames buoys alone, the Trinity House receives £14,000 per annum as dues.

BU'PHAGA. See BEEFEATER.

BUPRE'STIS, a Linnæan genus of Coleopterous (q. v.) insects, now divided into a number of genera, and forming a tribe or family, Buprestide, of which some hundreds of species are known, most of them belonging to tropical countries, and remarkable for the splendour of their colours. The colours are generally metallic in their lustre, have frequently a burnished appearance, and are often beautifully iridescent. One of the largest species, B. giyas, is a native of Cayenne: it is about 2 inches long. The

Buprestis Bicolor.

Larva of Buprestis gigas. English and other European species are all comparatively small. Most of the species spend the night on trees, shrubs, and other plants, flying about during the hottest part of the d y. Some of them are popularly known as GOLDEN BEETLES. Plants are sometimes seen studded with them in the

morning, as with gorgeous flowers. The golden elytra (wing-cases, see ELYTRA) of some species are used to enrich the embroidery of the Indian zenana; and the lustrous joints of the legs are strung on silken threads, and form necklaces and bracelets of singular_brilliancy. The species of Buprestidæ found in England are fev; none have yet been found in Scotland. The larvæ seem sometimes to be transported from one country to another in timber.

BUR, in an engraving, is a slight ridge of metal raised on the edges of a line by the graver or the dry point. As the bur produces an effect like a smear, it is usually regarded as a defect, and scraped off. Some etchers, however, take advantage of it to deepen their shadows, and Rembrandt made use of it in this way with telling effect. BURANHEM, or BURUNIIEM.

BARK.

See MONESIA

BURA'NO, an island and town of Northern Italy, in the Adriatic, about 5 miles north-east of Venice. The island supplies a large proportion of the vegetables consumed in Venice. B. has some lace manufactures, boat-building, and an extensive ropework, but the inhabitants are chiefly employed in fishing. Pop. 8000.

It is

BU'RBOT (Lota vulgaris), a fish of the same genus with the Ling (q. v.), and of the same family with the Cod, Haddock, &c., being the only British found in the Cam, the Trent, and other rivers of the fresh-water species of that family, Gadida. It is of the most local of British fresh-water fishes. eastern and midland counties of England, but is one found also in various parts of the north of Europe, and at least as far south as Switzerland; in Siberia In English rivers, it often reaches 2 or 3 lbs. in and other parts of Asia, even, it is said, in India. weight, but has been taken of 8 lbs. weight; and in some parts of Europe it is said to reach 10 or 12 lbs. weight. In appearance the B. very

Burbot.

much resembles the ling, but is rather thicker at the neck, and tapers rather more rapidly, although still of a somewhat elongated form. It has two dorsal fins, the first short, the second very long, and a very long anal fin. It differs from the ling in the form of the tail-fin, which is oval and slightly pointed; but agrees with it in having a single barbule on the lower jaw. It is of a yellowishbrown colour, clouded and spotted with darker brown on the upper parts, the under parts lighter; the scales are small; and the whole body is covered with a mucous secretion. The flesh is white, firm, and of good flavour; and as the B. is in its nature extremely hardy, few difficulties present themselves in the way of their increase in quantity, while the value of the fish would amply repay the trouble or the cost of the experiment.'-Yarrell. The B. is capable of living for a long time out of water. It is commonly taken by trimmers and night-lines, as it feeds principally during the night. Its food consists of small fishes, worms, mollusca, &c. Its liver yields an oil similar to cod-liver oil.

BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS, an enterprising African traveller, was born at Lausanne, in

BURDEN-BURDE.

which case, they may be referred to in the terms, or as nearly as may be in the terms, set forth in schedule C annexed to the act. A similar provision is made in regard to lands held in burgage tenure, by the 10 and 11 Vict. c. 49.

BURDEN or BURTHEN, of a ship. See TONNAGE.

BURDEN OF PROOF, in legal procedure, signifies the obligation to establish by evidence certain disputed facts; and, as a general rule, this burden lies on the party asserting the affirmative of the issue to be tried or question in dispute, according to the maxim ei incumbit probatio qui dicit non qui negat-that is, proof is incumbent on him who remark-negat-that asserts, not on him who denies. The principle of the law is, that the B. of P. is on the party who

would fail if no evidence were adduced on either

Switzerland, November 24, 1784. In 1806, he came to London, and was introduced by Sir Joseph Banks to the African Association, which accepted his services to explore the route of Hornemann into the interior of Africa, and he embarked for Malta, February 14, 1809. He had previously qualified himself for the undertaking by a study of Arabic, and also by inuring himself to hunger, thirst, and exposure. From Malta he proceeded, under the disguise of an oriental dress and name, to Aleppo, where he studied about two years, at the end of which time he had become so proficient, in the vulgar Arabic, that he could safely travel in the disguise of an oriental merchant. He visited Palmyra, Damascus, Lebanon, and other remarkable places, and then went to Cairo, his object being to proceed from thence to Fezzan, and then across the Sahara to Sudan. No opportunity offering itself at the time for that journey, he went into Nubia. No European traveller had before passed the Derr. In 1814, he travelled through the Nubian desert to the shore of the Red Sea and to Jeddah, whence he proceeded to Mecca, to study Islamism at its source. After staying four months in Mecca, he departed on a pilgrimage to Mount Arafat. So completely had he acquired the language and ideas of his fellow-falling on the party not in that position. This test pilgrims, that, when some doubt arose respecting his Mohammedan orthodoxy, he was thoroughly examined in the Koran, and was not only accepted as a true believer, but also highly commended as a great Moslem scholar. In 1815, he returned to Cairo, and in the following year ascended Mount Sinai. The Fezzan caravan, for which he had waited so long, was at last about to depart, and B. had made all his preparations for accompanying it, when was seized with dysentery at Cairo, which terminated his life in a few days, October 15, 1817, at the early age of 33. As a holy sheik, he was interred with all funereal honours by the Turks the real nature of the plea of not guilty in a criminal in the Moslem burial-ground. His collection of oriental MSS., in 350 volumes, was left to the prosecution, and which divests that plea of the university of Cambridge. His journals of travel, objections to it which are frequently heard expressed remarkable alike for their interest and evident truth by over-scrupulous sentimentalists; for the meanfulness, were published by the African Association.ing of that plea is not necessarily an assertion by B. was a man born to be a traveller and discoverer; the prisoner that he is absolutely guiltless or innohis inherent love of adventure was accompanied cent, but that he wishes to be tried, and that as the by an observant power of the highest order. His B. of P. is on the prosecutor, while he has meanpersonal character recommended him to all with while the presumption of innocence in his favour.— Besides the work referred to, see on the subject whom he came in contact, and his loss was greatly of this article Starkie on the Law of Evidence in deplored, not only in England, but in Europe. His works are-Travels in Nubia, 1819; Travels in England, and Dickson Travels in England, and Dickson on the same subject in Syria and the Holy Land, 1822; Travels in Arabia, 1829; Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabis, 1850; and Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, 1830.

he

BU'RDEN, a term of law in Scotland, used to signify any restriction, limitation, or encumbrance affecting either person or property. Burdens are said to be either personal or real. Where a party is taken bound by acceptance of a right to pay a certain sum to another, but where there is no clause charging the subject conveyed with the sum, the burden is said to be personal; that is, it will be binding upon the receiver and his representatives, but will constitute no real encumbrance on the lands, or other subject conveyed, nor amount, indeed, to anything more than a mere personal obligation on the granter. But where the right is expressly granted under the burden of a specific sum, which is declared a burden or charge on the lands themselves, or where the right is declared null if the sum be not paid, the burden is said to be real.

By the 10 and 11 Vict. c. 48, real burdens need not be inserted in full in conveyances, if they have already been set forth in an instrument of title, in

side. Accordingly, it almost always rests on the plaintiff in an action, or on the party asserting the facts on which the result of the litigation must Alderson, that learned judge laid down that the depend. In one case tried before the late Baron proper test was, which party would be successful, if no evidence at all were given? the B. of P., of course, has since been generally adopted and applied; but Mr. Best, in his learned work on the Principles of Evidence, improves on it by the suggestion, that in would be successful, if no evidence at all, or no more strict accuracy the test ought to be, which party evidence, as the case may be, were given?' a consideration on which the discretion and judgment of counsel frequently depend. But although such, in general, is the position of the plaintiff, it sometimes happens that the B. of P. is imposed on the defendant, in consequence of his having the affirmative of the material issue to be tried.

It is this rule as to the B. of P. that demonstrates

Scotland.

BURDENS, PUBLIC. See PUBLIC BURDENS. BURDER, REV. GEORGE, an active and influential minister of the Congregational body, was born After studying some time as in London, June 1752. an artist, he devoted himself to the ministry, and in 1778 was appointed pastor of an Independent Church at Lancaster. He afterwards removed to Coventry, and in 1803 to London. Here he became secretary to the London Missionary Society, and editor of the Evangelical Magazine, the duties of which offices he discharged with great zeal, until failing health compelled him to resign. B. took a prominent part in all the religious movements of his time. lated into several European languages; and he was May 1832. His Village Sermons have been transthe author of other series of sermons and publica

tions which have had an immense circulation.

He died

BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS, Bart., the most popular English politician of his time, born January 25, 1770. Educated at Westminster School and Oxford University, he spent some years on the continent, and was a witness to the progress of In 1793 he married the first French Revolution. Sophia, youngest daughter of Thomas Coutts.