BUTTERFLY FISH-BUTTON. caterpillars of many species are variously furnished with spines, those of others-none of them British have long fleshy prominences, horny at the tip, probably intended as means of defence. The hinder wings of many butterflies are curiously prolonged into tail-like appendages, one or more on each wing, which vary in form, being sometimes long and linear, sometimes broad and widening towards the extremity. These are, however, little seen in British species. Butterflies are chiefly known to us as objects of admiration and of pleasing contemplation, enhancing the charms of the most delightful weather, and always associated with the most lovely scenes, orit must be added-as a cause of annoyance and vexation by the ravages of their caterpillar young in our fields and gardens. There is, however, one small species (Euplæa humata) which affords a supply of food to some of the wretched aborigines of Australia. Butterflies of this species congregate in such vast numbers on the masses of granite in the mountains, that they are collected by simply making smothered fires under the rocks, in the smoke of which they are suffocated. Bushels of them are thus procured, and they are baked by placing them on the heated ground, the down and wings removed, and the bodies made into cakes which resemble lumps of fat. The months of November, December, and January are quite a season of festivity from the abundance of this food. Brief notices of a few of the principal kinds of B. will be found in other parts of this work. See CABBAGE BUTTERFLY, CAMBERWELL BEAUTY, PURPLE EMPERor, &c. BUTTERFLY FISH. See BLENNY. BUTTERFLY WEED, or PLEURISY ROOT (Asclepias tuberosa, see ASCLEPIAS), & plant found in all parts of the United States, and which has obtained a considerable reputation for the medicinal virtues of its root. The root is large, formed of irregular tubers or spindle-shaped branches, externally yellowish brown, internally white, with a somewhat acrid nauseous taste when recent, merely bitter when dried. It yields its properties to boiling water, and is usually administered in the form of a decoction, sometimes in that of a powder. It is diaphoretic and expectorant, and has been found useful in the commencement of pulmonary affections, in rheumatism, and in dysentery.-The stem of the plant is erect and hairy, with spreading branches; the leaves oblongo-lanceolate, alternate, hairy, and somewhat crowded; the flowers orange-yellow, forming numerous umbels. BUTTERMILK is the form of milk from which the butter or oily matter has been abstracted. See BUTTER. Buttermilk contains the caseine, sugar, and salts of ordinary milk, and is only deficient in oily matters. It is therefore nutritious, and is largely used in Ireland and Scotland as an article of food, being very generally partaken of with porridge and with potatoes. It may be drank ad libitum, is a very agreeable cooling beverage, and is therefore useful in certain febrile and inflammatory conditions. BUTTERWORT (Pinguicula), a genus of plants of the natural order Lentibulariaceae (q. v.), distinguished by a two-lipped calyx, the upper lip trifid, the lower bifid; a spurred corolla, twolipped and gaping, the upper lip arched; and a globose germen. The species are small plants with only radical leaves, found in the bogs and marshes of different quarters of the world. Some of them possess much beauty when in flower, particularly P. grandiflora, a rare native of the south of France and of Ireland. The common B. (P. Butterwort (Pinguicula vulgaris): warm from the animal, upon the leaves of this plant, BUTTISHOLZ, a village of Switzerland, in the canton of Lucerne, and 11 miles north-west from the city of that name. Near to B. is a large mound called the English Barrow, because here are buried 3000 Englishinen, followers of De Coucy, son-in-law of Edward III. of England, who, while devastating the cantons, were defeated and killed by Swiss peasants in 1376. BUTTMANN, PHILIPP KARL, one of the most distinguished philologists of modern times, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1764, and studied at Göttingen under Heyne. He became, in 1789, assistant in the Royal Library in Berlin, and rose successively to be secretary and librarian (1811). He held at the same time (1800-1808) a professorship in the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, which he afterwards exchanged for a professorship in the newly founded university of that city. He died 21st June 1829. B. is best known by his Greek grammars, the Griech. Grammatik (Berl. 1792; 18th ed. by his son Alexander Buttmann, 1849), and an abridgment of it, Griech. Schulgram. (11th ed. 1843); both have been translated into English. His Lexilogus (translated by Fishlake) and Ausführliche Griech. Sprachlehre, or Larger Greek Grammar, which have gone through several editions, are designed for scholars. In his Mythologus, he has collected his essays on the myths of the ancients. BUTTON. The term B. is applied to the wellknown appendages to dress used for fastening or for ornament; and to a sort of oblong latch moving BUTTON. upon a pivot in the middle, that is applied by carpenters and cabinet-makers for fastening the lids of boxes, doors of presses, &c. The mass of fused metal found at the bottom of a crucible or cupel, after fusing or assaying, is also technically called a button. Buttons used for dress are of four kinds-shank buttons, hole buttons, covered buttons, and wire buttons. The chief seat of manufacture is Birmingham, though recently a very keen competition has been established in France and Germany, especially in fancy buttons. Shank buttons are for the most part of brass, which is supplied to the maker in sheets rolled to the thickness he requires. Circular discs, called blanks,' are cut from these by means of fly-presses and punches. The fly-press consists of a vertical iron screw with a triple thread, to which screw is attached a horizontal arm, bending downwards at the end to form a handle, by swinging which the screw is made to descend rapidly and firmly, carrying the punch with it. The presses are worked by women and girls, who hold the sheet metal in the left hand, and push it under the punch while the screw, which is worked by the right hand, is ascending. More complex machines are also used, by means or which a row of 8 or 10 blanks are cut at once, the machine itself pushing the metal forward; but hand-punching is still the method most extensively adopted in Birmingham. The edges are next trimmed, to remove the burr, and the blank is planished by stamping with a plain die, and the name of the maker embossed in like manner. The shanks are made by a machine which is fed with a coil of wire, which it pushes in short lengths to a pair of shears; these, when cut off, are, by another part of the machine, forced into a kind of vice, which bends them to the required loop shape; the ends are then struck out flat with a hammer, and the complete shank is pushed out of the machine. These shanks are soldered to the blanks, and the buttons are finished in the lathe. They are then lackered or gilded. See GILDING and LACKERING.' Shell' buttons are those with a convex face, a flat or convex back, and hollow. These are made of two blanks, that forming the face being larger than the back to which the shank is attached. These blanks are pressed into the required shape by dies worked in the fly-press, and then, by another die, the edge of the larger blank is lapped over the smaller, and thus attached without soldering. Livery and other buttons having a device in strong relief are stamped by a die attached to a heavy weight or 'monkey.' This monkey is suspended by a rope working over a pulley, and terminating in a stirrup into which the workman places his foot, and thereby lifts the weight and die; then raising his foot, suddenly lets it fall upon the B., which rests in another die fixed in the bench below. The monkey and die are guided in their descent by working in a groove between two upright posts. While the die is ascending, the workman holding the blank next to be stamped under his thumb, pushes it to its place, at the same time pushing out the one that has been stamped. This is done very rapidly; and the consequence of a moment's inattention is a crushed thumb-by no means an uncommon accident. Common white metal-buttons are cast in moulds, in which the shanks are previously placed, and are thereby attached without soldering. When the body of the B. is of pearl-shell, bone, or wood, the blanks are cut out by means of a tubular saw-i. e., a tube toothed at one end; this is made to revolve in a lathe, and the shell is pressed against it. The shanks are fixed by cutting a cavity half way through the blank; this is undercut, so that it is enlarged as it deepens. The stem of the shank is shaped like a hollow cone, with its base just large enough to enter the cavity; and after insertion, a blow spreads it out, so as to fill up the inner and larger part of the cavity, and thus it is dove-tailed in. A very Buttons with holes, technically called 'four-holes,' 'three-holes,' and 'two-holes,' when of pearl-shell, wood, bone, or ivory, are cut with the tubular saw as above, turned separately in a lathe, and drilled. When of metal, the blanks are punched, then stamped in dies to the required form; the holes are punched, and again stamped, to round the sharp edges that would otherwise cut the thread. The semi-paper B. is an important improvement recently made upon the metal four-hole. thin sheet-iron blank is struck with the edge turned up; into this is laid a blank of thick brown paper or rather thin mill-board; another stamping squeezes the raised edge round the paper, and clasps it tightly, thus incorporating together the metal and paper. The holes are then punched, and again pressed, so that the metal edges may be well rounded and sunk into the paper. After being japanned, these buttons appear as if of solid metal; but they are superior on account of their lightness, and the absence of any edges to the holes that can cut the thread. Wire buttons are simply rings of wire covered by machinery with threads radiating from the centre, and embracing the wire-ring. These are almost entirely superseded by linen-covered buttons. Covered buttons were formerly made by sewing cloth upon 'bone-moulds'-i. e., flat bone discs with a hole in the middle. These have been quite superceded by the various modifications of the 'flexible shank,' 'florentine,' and other buttons, the subjects of a multitude of patents. The details of these are somewhat complex, but the general principles of construction are nearly the same in all. A metal blank is punched, and its edge is turned up by a die in a fly-press; then another blank is punched with a hole in the middle, and of such size, that, when flat, it shall fit into the upturned edge of the first this perforated blank, or collet, is next pressed into a concave or dished shape. Two cloth blanks are now punched, one considerably larger than the metal blank, the other somewhat smaller; the larger cloth blank is laid upon the flat face of the metal blank, and its edges turned over; these edges are covered by the smaller cloth, and then the collet laid upon them with its concavity towards the cloth. They are now all pressed together in a sort of die or mould, by which means the collet is flattened and spread out, while the upturned edge of the metal blank is turned forcibly over it, thus securing the collet, and with it the cloth which is strained tightly on the face, and its edges bound between the blank and the collet, so that the whole is firmly held together. This process is variously modified according to the kind of button. The linen B. before referred to is formed simply of the blank and collet, both being perforated in the middle, and the linen stretched over them, forming the flat B. used for underclothing. has recently been improved by leaving a bar of metal across the central hole of the blank, over which bar the thread is passed in sewing on the button. The flexible shank buttons have a padding of paper and cloth between the blank and collet; and this padding, covered with the smaller cloth or silk blank, is made by the pressure to project through the hole of the collet, and form the shank. This Many four and two hole buttons are now made of plastic materials, which are pressed in moulds to the shape required. Horn buttons are made by pressure, the horn having been softened by heat. BUTTONWOOD-BUTYRIC ACID. Very elaborate and elegant patterns in relief are at the same time produced on the surface. Vulcanized caoutchouc is largely employed in the manufacture of buttons of great durability and beauty. A very cheap substitute for pearl buttons is made by forcibly compressing clay into moulds. There are several compositions of this kind used, and most of them patented. An attempt is now being made by Messrs. Dain, Watts, and Manton of Birmingham, to supersede the French horn buttons by means of a mixture of vegetable fibre and resinous matter. The patent is not yet (1860) completed but from the specimens that have been shewn to the writer, it appears very likely that this branch of the trade will return to Birmingham—a matter of some importance, as buttons of this kind are now much in request. Buttons made of horn, vegetable ivory, the coquilla nut (see VEGETABLE IVORY, COQUILLA NUT), various hard woods, glass, &c., are now to a great extent superseding covered buttons, as the covered B. has superseded those of gilded brass. According to the census of 1851, only 11 males and 4 females were employed in Scotland in manufacturing buttons. The number in England and Wales was 2988 males and 3950 females; total, 6938, of whom 4980 were employed in Birmingham. Of these, there were 770 males under 20 years of age, and 1350 above; 1265 females under 20, and 1595 above. Nearly all the fly-press stamping and punching is done by women and girls. The stirrupstamping is done chiefly by men; and the bone, ivory, and other buttons that are turned in laths, are chiefly made by men. A considerable number of skilled workmen, receiving high wages, are employed in making dies, punches, and other tools for this trade. The carding of buttons-i. e., sewing the cards on which they are sold-employs a large number of girls. The cost of paper and cards is a serious item in this trade, and the paper-duty presses very heavily. The cards and paper of some of the cheaper pressed four-holes, cost more than the buttons themselves. BUTTONWOOD. See PLANE. The BUTTRESS (Old Eng. botress; Fr. buttée), a projection for the purpose of giving additional support or strength to a wall. In the classical style, there were no buttresses, their place being, to a certain extent, supplied by pilasters, antæ, &c. The different stages of Gothic architecture arc marked by the form of buttresses employed, almost as distinctly as by the form of the arch. Norman B. was broad, often semicircular, sometimes dieing into the wall at the top, and never projecting from it to any great extent. Early English buttresses project much more boldly, and are considerably narrower, than the Norman. They are frequently broken into stages, which diminish in size as they ascend. In the decorated style, this division into stages is almost invariable, the B. being often supplied with niches terminating in pinnacles, and very highly ornamented with carving, statues, &c. In the perpendicular style, they retain the forms which had been introduced during the decorated period, the ornamentation, of course, being varied to suit the character of the style. Flying buttresses-i. e., buttresses of which either the upper portion or the whole upright part are detached from the wall, with which they are connected by an arch -were introduced into England at the period of Canterbury Cathedral. Flying Buttress, Westminster Abbey. the Early English, though they existed on the continent previously, where they continued to be used to a greater extent. They were also very common in Scotland. In England, they are generally called arch-buttresses. BU'TUA ROOT. See CISSAMPELOS. BUTY RIC ACID may be best obtained by saponifying butter with potash, then adding dilute sulphuric acid till an acid reaction is attained, and distilling about one half of the mixture, adding a little water, and continuing the distillation till the residue is not acid. B. A. may also be obtained by allowing a small quantity of milk-curd to act upon a solution of sugar at a temperature of 77° to 86°, which excites a peculiar process of fermentation resulting in the formation of butyric acid. Some chalk is added to take up the B. A. whenever produced, and the better proportions to employ are 100 sugar, 8 to 10 fresh curd, and 50 chalk, with sufficient water to make a thin liquid. The butyrate of lime is left in the vessel, and on acting upon that by dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, and redistilling, the free B. A. passes over in vapour, and is condensed. B. A. is a transparent, thin, oily liquid, with a most persistent BUTYRIC ETHER-BUXTORF. rancid odour. It is mixable in all proportions in water, alcohol, ether, and oil of vitriol; has the specific gravity 973 (water being 1000), boils at 314°; though it volatilises at ordinary temperatures, as appears from the rancid odour of its vapour. Its chemical symbol is HO,C,H70s, and it combines with bases, such as lime, soda, &c., to form salts. BUTYRIC ETHER, or PINE-APPLE OIL, is an exceedingly fragrant oil obtained by distilling butyric acid (or the butyrate of lime), alcohol, and sulphuric acid. The material which passes over is the B. E., and it is generally mixed with alcohol, and sold in commerce as Artificial Pine-apple Oil. It possesses the same very pleasant flavour which belongs to pine-apples, and there is little doubt that pine-apples owe their flavour to the presence of natural butyric ether. The artificial variety is now extensively used for flavouring confections, as pine-apple drops, for sophisticating bad rum, and for flavouring custards, ices, and creams, as also an acidulated drink or lemonade named Pine-apple Ale. B. E. alone cannot be used in perfumery for handkerchief use, as, when inhaled in even a small quantity, it tends to cause irritation of the air-tubes of the lungs and intense headache, but it is often employed in the manufacture of perfumes. By the old system it was composed of ordinary ether (CHO) and butyric acid (CHO+HO), and its strict chemical name and symbol is the butyrate of the oxide of ethyl (C4H2O,C8H7O3). It is remarkable that a substance possessing such a disagreeable odour as butyric acid (that of rancid butter) should be capable of forming, in part at least, a substance with such a pleasant flavour as artificial pine-apple oil. 5 BUXA'R, a town of Shahabad, in the sub-presidency of Bengal, situated on the right bank of the Ganges. It is chiefly remarkable as the scene of a victory gained in 1764 by Sir Hector Munro. At the head of 7072 men, of whom only 857 were Europeans, he defeated a native army of 40,000, and captured 133 guns. B. is 62 miles north-east of Benares, and 398 north-west of Calcutta. Pop. 3000. BUXBAU'MIA, a genus of Mosses, of which only one species is known, B. aphylla, a very rare British plant, remarkable for its apparent want of leaves; the whole plant above ground seeming to consist of a little conical bulb, with minute scales, which are, however, really its leaves. of gritstone, called the Crescent, a curve of 200 BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL, a man of singular earnestness and force of character, belonging to the class termed 'philanthropists,' was born in 1786 at Earl's Colne, Essex. The eldest son of a wealthy family, and early deprived of paternal guidance, his youth was distinguished chiefly by a strong development of animal energy, natural enough to a young Englishman whose full stature exceeded 6 feet 4 inches. At the university of Dublin, his mind at length asserted its claims, and the new consciousness of needing to raise the family fortunes animated him to extraordinary efforts. His preparatory education had been almost thrown away, but at 21 he left the university its most distinguished graduate. In that year he married a sister of the celebrated Mrs. Fry, and entered business as a brewer, with an energy which in due time was crowned with splendid prosperity. His warm religious and moral impulses soon brought him prominently forward as an advocate of philanthropic interests. Prison discipline formed one of the earliest subjects of his efforts. In 1818, he entered parliament as member for Weymouth, which he continued to represent for about 20 years, taking a prominent part in every debate on such questions as the amelioration of criminal law and of prison discipline, widow-burning and slave emancipation. The latter, in particular, engrossed a large share of his activity for many years, and no man on that side displayed more indomitable zeal and firmness in its advocacy. In 1837, he was rejected by his constituency, and refused ever after to stand for a borough. His philanthropic labours, however, terminated only with his life. In 1840, he received the well-merited distinction of a baronetcy. He died on the 19th February 1845. Geneva. BUXTORF, JOHANN, a celebrated orientalist, was born 25th December 1564, at Kamen, in Westphalia; studied at Marburg, Herborn, Basel and After travelling through Germany and Switzerland, he settled at Basel, where he became He died of the plague professor of Hebrew in 1591. 13th September 1629. In a knowledge of rabbinical literature, he surpassed all his contemporaries. The two works which prove his extensive acquaintance with this recondite branch of theological study, are his Biblia, Hebraica Rabbinica (Basel, 1618-1619), and his Tiberias seu Commentarius Masorethicus (Basel, 1620). The most useful of his grammatical works is the Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum (Basel 1607). BU'XTON, a town in Derbyshire, 33 miles northwest of Derby. It lies 900 feet above the sea, in a deep valley, surrounded by hills and moors, which have been tastefully planted; the only approach being by a narow ravine, by which the Wye flows into the Derwent. The new part of the town is much under the level of the old. Five miles to the east of B. is Chee Tor, a perpendicular limestone rock, rising to a height of between 300 and 400 feet from the Wye. B. has for 300 years been famous for its calcareous springs, tepid (82°F.), and cold (discharging 120 gallons of water per minute), and its chalybeate springs. It is visited annually, from June to October, by 12,000 to 14,000 persons, the waters being taken for indigestion, gout, BUXTORF, JOHANN, the son of the former, was rheumatism, and nervous and cutaneous diseases. born at Basel, 13th August 1599, and displayed at Nearly 5000 strangers can be accommodated at one an early period a decided predilection for the same time. There is an institution called the Devonshire studies with his father. At five years of age-accordHospital, containing 100 beds, supported by sub- ing to his rather credulous biographers-he could scription, where nearly 100 patients are annually read German, Latin, and Hebrew. To perfect his boarded and lodged free of charge. The baths and knowledge of these tongues, he visited Holland, public walks are numerous. Much of the splendour France, and Germany; and in 1630 was appointed of B. is due to the Dukes of Devonshire, one of to succeed his father in the chair of Hebrew at whom, in the last century, at the cost of £120,000, Basel, where he died 16th August 1664. Besides erected an immense three-storied pile of buildings, his Lexicon Chaldaicum et Syriacum (Basel, 1622), BUXUS-BY-LAWS. and a work of Maimonides, entitled More Nevochim of young, at the proper season, that they have (Basel, 1629), which is an exposition of obscure hatched hens' eggs and brought up the chickens, passages of the Old Testament, he published from the MSS. of his father a Lexicon Chaldaicum, Talmudicum, et Rabbinicum (Basel, 1639), and Concordantiæ Bibliorum Hebraicorum (Basel, 1632). BU'XUS. See Box. BUYING OF PLEAS by lawyers is prohibited by an old Scotch act passed in 1594. It will be explained under the English term champerty, to which it is analogous. BUYUKDEREH, a beautiful suburb of Constantinople, from which it is a few miles distant, situated on the Bosporus, in the midst of the most charming scenery. It forms the summer residence of many of the Christian ambassadors, some of whom have splendid mansions here. BUZZARD (Buteo), a genus of Accipitres (q. v.), or birds of prey, of the family Falconida, having a rather small and weak bill, which bends from the base, and is not notched, as in falcons. The legs are short and strong, the tarsi covered with scales or with feathers, the toes short, and the claws strong. Buzzards may be regarded as an inferior kind of eagles; they do not possess courage equal to that of eagles and falcons, nor equal strength of bill or claws. They are large birds; the COMMON B. Common Buzzard. although if chickens not of their own hatching were The Australian BY'BLOS, an ancient city of Phoenicia, now called Jubeil, situated at the base of the lower range of the Libanus, about half-way between Tripoli and Beyrout. B. was famous as the birthplace of Adonis, or Thammuz, in whose honour a splendid temple was erected, which attracted many worshippers. The name given to the town by the Jews was Giblah, and its inhabitants the Giblites are noticed in the Scriptures as stone-squarers and calkers of ships. A wall belonging apparently to the era of the Crusades, surrounds the town, and the remains. of a Roman theatre are still visible.-B. was also the name of a town in the Egyptian Delta, celebrated for its manufacture of papyrus from the byblus or papyrus plant. BY-LAWS are the private regulations which are usually made by corporate bodies for the control and government of the corporation. They are binding, unless contrary to the laws of the land, or to the (B. vulgaris) measuring almost 4 feet from tip charter, or act of incorporation, or, as it has been to tip of its outstretched wings. It is a bird still decided in England, unless they are manifestly pretty common in Britain, although much less so unreasonable. Blackstone tells us that the right than it formerly was. It is subject to variations of making B. was allowed by the law of the of plumage; the prevailing colour is brown, with Twelve Tables at Rome; and Mr. Stephen, in his a considerable mixture of black on the upper Commentaries, states that in the law of England parts, and of white or grayish-white on the under. such a right is so much of course, as regards every It is sluggish and inactive, in comparison with corporation, that if the charter by which certain many other birds of the same family; is usually persons are incorporated give to a select body, out slow in its flight, and often sits long on a tree, of their whole number, a power to make B. as watching for prey, which, when it perceives, it to certain specified matters, the body at large is glides silently into the air, and sweeping rapidly nevertheless at liberty to make them with regard down, seizes it in its claws. This B. is plentiful to all matters not specified. Every corporation, in all the wooded parts of Europe; it is found also in the north of Africa, and is known to exist in the western parts of Asia; but it is doubtful how far it extends over that continent, a distinct although very similar species occurring in the Himalaya Mountains. The common B. is, however, a North American bird. Tame female buzzards have been known in several instances to exhibit so strong a propensity for incubation, and the rearing too, can of course alter or repeal the B. which itself has made. By the Municipal Corporation Act, 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76, s. 90, borough councils have power to make B. for the government of the borough, and for the prevention and suppression of nuisances; such by-laws, however, not to be of force till the expiration of forty days after the same, or a copy shall have been sent to one of the secretaries of state, during which period |