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BYZANTINE EMPIRE.

affairs. Western Illyria (comprehending Pannonia, Phocas, one of his generals, was elevated to the Dalmatia, and Noricum) was ceded to the Eastern throne. Phocas proved a bad ruler. Through his empire by the Roman emperor Valentinian III; and after several victories achieved by the Byzantine general Ardaburius, over the Persians, a part of Armenia was also annexed. But, nevertheless, Thrace and Macedonia could only be secured from the destructive conquests of Attila by the payment of tribute. After the death of Theodosius II., Pulcheria married the senator Marcianus (450-457), whose firmness repelled the invasions of Attila. Marcianus was followed by Leo I., surnamed Macella (the Butcher), a Thracian of low birth, but elevated to the throne by the commander-in chief, Aspar, who, being himself an Arian, would not venture to encounter the perils that sovereignty might have entailed on one of his religious views. Leo. II., grandson of the former, succeeded, but died after a few months, in consequence of which the crown came into the possession of his father, Zeno (474491), who was banished by Basiliscus (475), but who re-ascended the throne in 477. Though a weak and unpopular ruler, he contrived to retain his power in spite of several serious revolts. The internal distraction of the empire, to which, as at other times religious strifes added considerably, increased greatly during the reign of Zeno, and the invasions of the Goths were prevented only by gifts | and stratagems. Ariadne, widow of Zeno, by her second marriage raised the courtier Silentiarius to the throne under the title Anastasius I. (491-518). By the help of the Goths, this monarch overthrew, after a six years' contest, the robber tribes of Mount Taurus. A new enemy, however, now appeared on the Danube in the Bulgarians, against whose desolating raids Anastasius built the Long Wall, to protect the peninsula on which Constantinople lies. The war with the Persians also broke out anew during his reign, and religious tumults often purpled the streets of Constantinople itself. After his death, the army raised Justinus I. to the throne. He maintained his position mainly through the favour of the clergy, whom he had conciliated by his severe persecution of heretics.

His nephew, Justinian (q. v.), succeeded (527565), and became celebrated by his code of laws, and by the victories of his great generals, Belisarius (q. v.) and Narses (q. v.). But the rapid decline of the empire after his death shewed that he had not been able to give it any internal consolidation or vitality. It was during the reign of Justinian that those pestilent contests of the Blues and Whites against the Greens and Reds (political factions so named from the colours respectively worn) first attained any consequence; and though the first disturbance was terribly chastised by Belisarius in 532, they continued to distract the capital periodically down to the 7th century. Justin II. (565-578), a weak man, governed by his wife, Sophia, yielded a part of Italy to the Longobards, was unsuccessful against the Persians, allowed the Avari to plunder the Danubian provinces, and ultimately became insane through vexation and anxiety. Tiberius the captain of the guard, was then made regent, and after the death of Justin II., received the imperial dignity. He ruled with mildness and prudence (578-582), purchased a peace with the Avari, concluded the war with Persia, and left as his successor the commander-in-chief, Mauricius, who reigned from 582 to 602. Having replaced on the throne the Persian King, Kosroes II., who had been banished by his subjects, he thus secured the peace of his eastern frontiers: but, on the other hand, the war against the Adari did not prosper. His niggardly treatment of the army caused a military insurrection in which he was slain along with his son; and

monstrous vices, tyranny, and incapacity for govern-
ment, the empire lapsed into still deeper anarchy.
Suddenly, however, a deliverer appeared in the
person of Heraclius (q. v.), son of the exarch or
governor-general of Africa, who headed a conspiracy,
marched to Constantinople, overthrew the tyrant,
and ascended the throne, 610. But great as was
the genius of Heraclius, he had to submit to twelve
years of defeat before he could organize and dis-
cipline a victorious army. In 622, he opened those
magnificent campaigns in which the power of Persia
was crushed, and which, in the opinion of Gibbon,
were equal to those of Scipio or Hannibal. He
lived, however, to see more formidable foes in the
Arabs, who, inspired by fanatic zeal, and led by the
Calif Omar, captured, during 635-641, the countries
on the Euphrates, with Syria, Judæa, and Egypt.
The power of the Greeks, which was demanded to
resist the Arabian invasions, was miserably divided
and weakened by their unending religious quarrels,
especially the controversy of the Orthodox against
the Monothelites (q. v.). The empire was breaking
asunder, and Heraclius, now worn out with the
fatigues of war, had abandoned his enfeebled senses
to pleasure, and his enfeebled intellect to theological
discussions. He died in 641. Constantine III., who
succeeded his father, Heraclius, also died soon after,
and was followed by Heracleonas, who lost the
crown, and was mutilated in an insurrection. The
next ruler was Constans, son of Constantine III.,
who ruled from 642 to 668, made himself odious by
cruelty, and perished in an insurrection. His son,
Constantine IV., Pogonatus (668-685), enforced a
treaty of peace on the invading Arabs (675) by his
successful use of the Greek fire in warfare. On
the other side, he was compelled to pay tribute in
680 to the Bulgarians, who had established them-
selves in ancient Moesia. Justinian II. (685—711),
son and successor of Pogonatus, was victorious in
war against the Monothelite Maronites; but was
defeated by the Bulgarians (688), and by the Arabs
(692). His cruelty caused an insurrection, at
the head of which was Leontius, who, in 695,
deposed him, cut off his nose (hence his surname
Rhinotmetus), and banished him to the Tauric
Chersonese; in 705, he was restored to the throne,
but adversity had taught him no wisdom.
A part
of his subjects revoited, and the king, abandoned
by his army and by the Bulgarians, was assassin-
ated in 711. With him the dynasty of Heraclius
expired.

Philippicus Bardanes (the leader of the last insurrection against Justinian II.) was next raised to the throne (711); but after having made himself odious by favouring the metaphysical tenets of the Monothelites, he was deposed and brutally deprived of eyesight (713). His successor, Anastasius II., prudently screened himself from a mutinous army by retiring into a monastery (716), and left the crown to Theodosius III., who abdicated in 717, when Leo, the Isaurian, and general of the army of the East, did not recognise him, and marched with hostile intent to Constantinople. Leo. (q. v.) himself ascended the throne in 717, and drove back the Arabs from Constantinople, but unhappily gave occasion in 726, for that contest concerning the worship of images, which rent the empire for more than a century. In 728, the exarchate of Ravenna was lost, and the eastern provinces became the prey of the Arabs, over whom, however, he won a great victory in Phrygia. He died in 741. Constantine V. (741-775), son of Leo III., on account of his zeal as an iconoclast, was hated by the monks, who gave him the surname 'Copronymos,' because

BYZANTINE EMPIRE.

wife, Zoe, a profligate but crafty princess, who raised successively to the imperial dignity Michael IV. (1034), Michael V. (1041), and Constantine IX. (1042). Meanwhile, Russians and Arabs devastated the realm. In Asia, the Seljuk Turks proved dangerous enemies; while in Lower Italy, the Normans narrowed the Byzantine power to the possession of Otranto. After Constantine's death in 1054, Theodora, sister of Zoe, was elected empress; and on her death in 1056, Michael VI., who was deposed by Isaac I., Comnenus.

With Isaac I., Comnenus, who came to the throne in 1057, the dynasty of the Comnenien emperors began. He retired to a monastery (1059), and was succeeded by Constantine X., whose widow, Eudocia, married Romanus IV., and raised him to the throne. Romanus was deposed in 1071 by Michael VII. (son of Constantine X.), who, in his turn, was dethroned by Nicephorus III. (1078), who reigned until 1081, when he was deposed by Alexius I., Comnenus (q. v.), (1081— 1118). This last reign was marked by the commencement of the Crusades. The successors of Alexius-his son, Kalo-Joannes (1118-1143), and Manuel I. (1143–1180)—were able rulers, and victorious in their engagements with the Turks. Manuel's son, Alexius II., was murdered by his guardian, Andronicus (grandson of Alexius I.), who raised himself to the throne. He was the last prince of the Comnenian dynasty, and fell in an insurrection excited by his own cruelty, 1185.

After the first turbulent reign of Isaac II., who was blinded and deposed by his brother, Alexius III., who took the surname of Comnenus in 1195, the Crusaders restored Isaac to the throne (1203), and also crowned his son Alexius IV.; but the restless citizens of Constantinople elected Nicolas Kanabus, who took the title of Alexius V., and pursuing the usual bloody course, put his predecessor to death.

(according to their malicious and uncleanly statement) he had polluted the font at his baptism. He was a brave ruler, recovered from the Arabs parts of Syria and Armenia, and ultimately defeated the Bulgarians, against whom he had long been unsuccessful. His son, Leo IV. (775-780) was a mild ruler; but by the ability of his generals he made the boundaries of the empire secure against the Arabs. After him Constantine VI. ascended the throne under the guardianship of his ambitious mother, Irene (q. v.), who raised a powerful party in favour of image-worship. Constantine having made an attempt to liberate himself from the influence of his mother and her paramour, Stauratius, Irene barbarously caused her own son to be blinded (797). He died soon after this atrocity; and Irene, who had boldly conceived the design of marry ing the Emperor Charlemagne, and thus uniting the east and west of Europe in one vast realm, excited the opposition which, in 802, placed her treasurer, "Nicephorus, on the throne. Irene was banished to Lesbos, where she died in 803. Nicephorus, who fell in battle against the Bulgarians (811), was succeeded by his Son, Stauratius, who soon yielded the throne to his brother-in-law, Michael I., from whom it was taken by the Armenian general Leo V., a powerful ruler, who conquered the Bulgarians, but fell (820) in a conspiracy excited by his zeal against image-worship. Michael II., the Stammerer, was raised from a dungeon to the throne, and ruled until 829. In his reign, Crete and Sicily passed into the hands of the Arabs. Under the rule of his son, Theophilus, who is praised by the Byzantine historians for his love of justice (829-842), the general, Manuel, gained some indecisive victories over the Arabs. Theodora, widow of Theophilus and guardian of Michael III. (842-867), brought the controversy about images to a close at the Council of Nicea (842), when the worship of these was fully sanctioned and re-introduced. During this reign, the government In 1204, the French and the Venetians (collecbusied itself in the persecution of the Paulicians tively named Latins) advanced on Constantinople, (q. v.), while the Arabs devastated the Asiatic and captured the city, April 12, having made provinces. Theodora, having been banished to a themselves masters of the European provinces. convent by her son, the government was for some The whole was divided into four parts, of which time held by Bardas, uncle of Michael III., and after the first, including the metropolis, fell to the lot his assassination, by Basilius I., the Macedonian, who of Baldwin, Count of Flanders, who was made emcaused Michael to be put to death, and afterwards peror, and to whom the other participants in the ruled ably from 867 to 886. But though on the expedition did fealty for their respective shares. whole successful against the Arabs, the latter con- The Venetians obtained the coasts of the Adriatic trived to make themselves masters of Syracuse. His and Egean seas, a part of the Morea, and several dynasty (the Macedonian) maintained itself on the islands; Bonifacius, Count of Montferrat, Macedonia, Byzantine throne, with some few interruptions, until and part of Greece; several dukedoms, countships, 1056. The reign of his son, Leo VI., the Philoso- &c., were also established at Athens, Philippopolis, pher (886-912), was not prosperous. The inroads and other places for French knights; while a of the Bulgarians and of the Arabs, who, in 904, plun- | number of Greek princes, both on the mainland dered Thessalonica, continued to increase during the and in the islands, maintained their independence. government of his son, Constantine VII., Porphyro- In the west of Asia Minor Theodorus Lascaris, genitus, who ruled mildly but feebly (912-959). who had been elected emperor at Constantinople, Under his son, the dissolute Romanus II. (959--963), Crete was retaken from the Arabs by the vigour of his general, Nicephorus Phocas, who, on the death of the emperor, married his widow, Theophania. She, however, caused him to be murdered in 969, as she wished to marry John Tzimiskes, who ruled till 976, and, like his predecessor, was victorious against the Arabs and Bulgarians, as also the Russians, who about this time began to emerge from obscurity as an enemy of the Byzantine power. His successor, Basilius II. (976-1025), the son of Romanus, conquered the Bulgarian kingdom, and attached it as a province to the empire, which it remained till 1186, when it again became independent. His brother, Constantine VIII. (10251028), did not resemble him. Romanus III. next ascended the throne, but was assassinated by his

formally transferred the seat of government to
Nicæa; and finally, in the north-east of Asia Minor,
the governor of the province of Colchis, Alexius
Comnenus, ruled at Trebizond with absolute author-
ity; while one of his successors, John Comnenus,
even assumed the title of emperor. At Con-
stantinople, neither Baldwin nor his successors
could strengthen the sinking empire. Baldwin
himself died (1206) a prisoner in the hands of the
Bulgarians. After him came his brother Henry,
who ruled bravely and wisely till 1216. For the
next four years, the empire was actually without.
a ruler, and a prey to utter anarchy.
In 1221,
Robert, son of Peter, Count of Auxerre and Cour-
tenay, came to the throne; and was succeeded by
John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem (1228--
1237); and the latter by Baldwin II. (1237—1261).

BYZANTINE EMPIRE-BYZANTINE HISTORIANS.

During these reigns, a great part of the empire was Romans,' even after Charlemagne had founded seized by John Vatazes, successor of Theodorus a new dynasty. Though great influence was at Lascaris of Nicæa (1222-1255). This ruler was various times exercised by the clergy as well as by followed in Nicæa by Theodorus II. (1255-1259), women, courtiers, and ministers, the emperors were whose son, Johannes, during his minority, was pure autocrats, having supreme power in all departsuperseded by Michael VIII., Palæologus, who, by ments of government, and being themselves superior the help of the Genoese, captured Constantinople to all laws. By pompous titles, by great splendour (July 25, 1261), and thus put an end to the Latin of costume, and by a strict observance of an elabordynasty; though some few Latin principalities ately minute court ceremonial, as well as by the maintained themselves till the fall of the Byzantine cruel penalties inflicted for any insult offered to the empire. imperial dignity, or to the dignity of the emperor's Michael, the first of the Palæologi, a powerful relatives, they kept themselves sacredly apart from prince, really endeavored to strengthen the realm; the people. Gradually everything disappeared that but by his unhappy attempt to unite the Greek might have been a check upon the utter despotism Church with the Latin, from which it had deci- of the supreme power. As early as the 6th c., the sively separated (1054), he gave great offence to consulate was absorbed into the mass of imperial the clergy and the people. His son, Andronicus II., honours, while the traces of the senate which Conwho came to the throne, 1282, re-established the stantine had established at Byzantium, and which Greek ritual. After the death of his son and was composed of those on whom the emperor had co-regent, Michael IX. (1320), Andronicus II. was bestowed the dignity of patriciate, as well as the compelled to divide the throne with his grandson, chartered privileges of the towns, had entirely Andronicus III., who became sole emperor, 1328. vanished in the 10th century. The privy council, This monarch unsuccessfully opposed the Turks, to whom the conduct of the state was intrusted, who took Nicæa and Nicomedia in 1339, and wasted was arbitrarily chosen by the emperor. The state the European coasts. He died in 1341. Under his officials were very numerous, and their respective son, Johannes V., the Turks first gained a firm ranks carefully distinguished. They were raised far | footing in the European provinces, and spread them- above the populace by titles and privileges, but were selves from Gallipoli (which they captured in 1357) utterly dependent on the throne. Among these, over other districts. Sultan Murad took Adrianople, the Domestici (including many eunuchs), claimed the 1361, and made it the seat of government. He and highest rauk as immediate attendants on the his follower, Bajazet, conquered all the Byzantine emperor. The rank of the Curopalates, who had territories as far as Constantinople. Manuel II., charge of the four chief imperial palaces, became, in son and successor of Johannes, was besieged in course of time, subordinate to that of the ProtovestiConstantinople by Bajazet, who defeated an army arius, who was invested with the highest dignity under Sigismund of Hungary, at Nicopolis, in 1396, of all. The Domestici were made commanders-inand compelled the Byzantine monarch to cede chief of the army. Among them the Domesticus of to the Turks one of the main streets of the city, the East (styled, par excellence, Megadomesticus) held which was saved from capture only by Timour's the highest rank, and finally, under the Palæologi, incursions into the Turkish territories, 1402. By was considered the first civil and military officer this diversion Manuel recovered some portion of of the realm. The provinces were ruled by the Byzantine provinces, but made so little use of governors bound to contribute certain sums to the the occasion, that, in 1422, the metropolis was again royal revenue, which gave rise to oppressive exacbesieged by Murad II., who, after he had over- tions. No distinction was made between the statethrown the force sent to aid the emperor by revenue and the privy-purse. For military service, Ladislaus, king of Hungary, at the battle of Varna, the land was divided into districts (Themata); and made Constantinople, in 1444, the limit of the the army, down to the later times, consisted almost domains of Johannes VI., son of Manuel, and entirely of foreign mercenary troops, the imperial compelled him to pay tribute. Constantine XI., body-guard, or Spatharii, who were mainly Gerbrother of Johannes, bravely but fruitlessly con- mans, holding the highest rank. The admiral of the tended against the overwhelming Turkish forces, fleet was styled Megas Dux. In the midst of conand fell heroically in the defence of Constantinople, stant internal and external disturbances, the adminiswhich was captured by Mohammed II., May 29, tration of justice was grossly neglected and abused, 1453, when the B. E. was brought to a close. The though Justinian and other emperors earnestly enpetty Latin princes who existed here and there in deavored to establish just laws. Greece, and the despots, Demetrius and Thomas, who ruled in the Morea, were subdued by Mohammed in 1460; while David, a member of the Comnenian dynasty, the last emperor of Trebizond, submitted in 1461.

It is almost superfluous, after this painful and bloody record of dynastic crimes and tumults, continuing century after century for upwards of a thousand years, to affirm that the history of the world never witnessed so miserable and degraded a caricature of imperial government as the B. E. affords, or to express the conviction that nature was sternly satisfied to behold it finally swept from the face of the earth, even by the hands of barbarous Turks.

The constitution of the B. E. was founded on the institutions of Diocletian and Constantine the Great, and was purely despotic. The emperors, who were consecrated by the Patriarchs of Constantinople, claimed, as the true descendants of the Cæsars, a sovereignty over the West as well as the East, and styled themselves 'rulers of the

BYZANTINE HISTORIANS are those Greek writers who have handled-the history of the Byzantine empire. They are divided into three classes— 1. Those whose works refer exclusively to Byzantine history; 2. Those who professedly occupy themselves with universal history, but at the same time treat Byzantine history at disproportionate length; 3. Those who write on Byzantine customs, antiquities, architecture, etc. The B. H. are far from faultless, yet, as they are the only sources of information regarding the vast empire of the East, they are invaluable to us. The most interesting and instructive among them, however, are those who confine their attention to a limited number of years, and to the events which transpired under their own observation, or in which they took part. The principal B. H. were collected and published at Paris in 36 vols., with Latin translations under the editorship of P. Philippe Labbé, a Jesuit, and his successors (1648-1711). This magnificent collection was reprinted, with additions, at Venice, 1727 -1733. In 1828, Niebuhr, assisted by Bekker, the

BYZANTINES-BYZANTIUM.

two Dindorfs, Schopen, Meinecke, and Lachmann, began a new Corpus Scriptorum Historia Byzantine, of which many volumes have already appeared.

BYZANTINES, in Numismatics, is the term applied to coins of the Byzantine empire. Byzantine coins are of gold, silver and bronze; bear impressions distinct from those of the earlier Roman coins; and were copied in several countries where the Byzantine standard was adopted. The commercial relations of the Eastern empire served to distribute its coinage over almost all the then known world. It was current in India, as well as in the north of Europe. Recently, an increased attention has been paid to the study of Byzantine coins as aids to history.-Sauley, Essai de Classification de Suites Monétaires Byzantines (Metz, 1836).

monians in 405. Shortly afterwards, it renewed its alliance with Athens, and in 390, Thrasybulus altered its form of government from an oligarchy into a democracy. When Athens again acquired a dangerous importance as a naval power, B., in 356, leagued itself with Chios, Rhodes, and King Mausolus II. of Caria, and crippled the trade of the former city; with which, however, it again formed an alliance, through the influence of Demosthenes, in opposition to Philip of Macedon, who, in 341 -340 B. C., vainly besieged Byzantium. Under Alexander the Great, B. retained a certain degree of independence. For some time, B. was tributary to the Gauls, who settled in Thrace, after the death when the Romans began to interfere in the affairs of of Brennus (280 B. C.). After the second Punic war, Grecian and Asiatic cities, B. attached itself to Rome, and, retaining almost entire its former liberties, mainBYZANTIUM, a city which stood on the tained also its commercial inportance. In the civil Thracian Bosporus, was first founded by emigrants war between Septimius Severus and Pescennius from Megara in 667 B. C., and rapidly rose to impor- Niger, B. sided with the latter. And was therefore tance as a seat of commerce. Its position was at besieged by Severus, and, after a brave defence of once secure and enchanting; it commanded the three years' duration, was captured in 196 A. D., and shores of Europe and Asia, had magnificent facili- reduced to ruin. Severus, repenting of the desolaties for trade, and was also encircled with rich, tion which he had made, rebuilt a part of the city picturesque, and varied scenery. After a time of under the name of Augusta Antonina, and ornasubjugation under Darius Hystaspes, B. was liber-mented it with baths, porticos, &c. Caracalla ated from the Persian yoke by Pausanias. Along restored to the inhabitants their ancient privileges; with other Grecian seaports, B. revolted from and, in 330 A. D., under the name of New Rome or Athens in 440 B. C., but was captured by Aicibiades Constantinople, it was made the metropolis of the (408). Lysander recovered it for the Lacedæ- | Roman empire. See CONSTANTINOPLE.

473

[graphic]

C

[graphic]

In the other Germanic alphabets, which were derived partly from the Roman and partly from the Greek, the Greek kappa or k is used almost to the exclusion of c, which, in German, Swedish, &c., appears only in words borrowed from the Romanic languages. See letter K.

THE third letter in all the alpha- | Eng. cart, pro. by some kyart), which would then bets derived from the Roman. It readily slide into chambre. corresponds in place to the Greek gamma (F), and had originally the same sound-viz., that of g in gun; as is expressly recorded, and as is proved by very old inscriptions, on which we read leciones, lece, for what were afterwards written legiones, lege. This medial or flat guttural sound of c was at an early period of Roman history lost in the sharp guttural or k-sound (see ALPHABET), and this continued to be the pronunciation of the letter c in Latin down at least to the 8th c. of the Christian era, not only in such words as comes, clamo, but also before the vowels e and i. Such Latin words as Cicero, fecit, are uniformly represented in Greek by Kikero, phekit; and in the times of the Empire, the Germans borrowed Kaiser, keller, from Cæsar, cellarium.

It seems difficult, at first sight, to account for the same letter having sounds so different as those heard in call and in civil. The beginning of the transition is to be found in the effect produced upon certain consonants by their standing before i followed by a vowel. Thus, in nation, ti has the effect of sh; and out of diurnal has sprung journal. In such combinations, is originally a semivowel ¿ having the force of y, and it is easy to see that tyon, dyur, pronounced in one syllable, cannot but slide into the sibilant or hissing sounds of shon, jur. A precisely similar effect is produced on the k-sound before ia, iu, io; in Lucius, Porcia, or rather Lukyus, Porkya, ky tends to slide into a hissing sound similar to that of ty and dy. This tendency shewed itself early in the Latin tongue; and in the vulgar Latin of later ages, and in the Romantic tongues that sprang out of it, it fully developed itself, so that the Italian came to pronounce Lucia as if written Lutshia. Combinations like ceo, cea, are little different from cio and cia, and would naturally follow the same course; and the s sound being once associated with the letter c in these positions, was gradually extended to it in cases where the e or i was not followed by a vowel.

The Anglo Saxon alphabet resembled the Roman, from which it sprang, in having no k, and in always using e with the sound of k; king and keen were spelled cyning and cene. It was also without q, for which cw was used-quick being spelled cwic. By a process analogous to that described above, such Anglo-Saxon words as ceorl, ceosan (pro. kyorl, kyosan), became transformed into the English churl, choose. And this suggests a natural explanation of the multitude of cases where the c of the Latin has been transformed into ch in French, and has passed in this form into English-e. g., Lat. caput, Fr. chef, Eng. chief; Lat. caminus, Eng. chimney; Lat. carmen, Eng. charm. For as the Anglo-Saxons turned the karl or korl of the other Gothic nations into kyorl, so doubtless the Romanised Gauls corrupted the pronunciation of the Latin camera, for example, into kyamera (compare

y; and

In modern English, c is pronounced like k before
the vowels a, o, u, and likes before e, i, and ?
where the sharp guttural sound has to be represented
before e, i, and y, the Germanic k has superseded
the Anglo-Saxon c, as in king, keen. In so far as
mere sound is concerned, c, is a superfluous letter
in English; in every case its power could be repre-
sented either by k or by s. In the corresponding
words of the several Aryan languages, we find vari-
ous substitutions for c, thus: Lat. calamus, Eng.
halm (stalk), Rus. soloma; Lat. cord-, Eng. heart,
Rus. serdtse; Lat. collum, Ger. hals (neck); Lat. acer
(sharp), Fr. aigre, Eng. eager; Lat. duc- (lead or
draw), Ger. zog, Eng. tug; Gr. pepo, Lat. coquo, Eng.
cook; Lat. dictus, Ital. ditto. C sometimes disap-
pears before I and r; thus: Gr. kleo (to sound one's
fame, allied to kaleo, to call or shout), Lat. laudo,
to praise, Ger. laut, voice, Eng. loud, Old Ger.
hlud, fame (hence Hludwig or Clodowig, Clovis,
Louis).

|
C, in Music, is the name of one of the notes of
the gamut. The scale of C major has neither flats
nor sharps, and therefore is called the natural
scale. The different octaves of the gamut, begin-
ning with C, are called by the Germans the great,
small, one-stroked, two-stroked, &c., beginning with
thus, C, c, c, c, c.

C is also the sound on which the system of music is founded, and from which the mathematical proportions of intervals are taken; that is, a string of a given length sounding C, when divided into certain proportions, is made to produce harmonically the intervals of the different fundamental chords.

C MAJOR, the first of the twelve major keys in modern music; being the natural scale, it has no signature.

C MINOR, the tonic minor of C major, has three flats for its signature-viz., B flat, E flat, and A flat. CAABA. See KAABA.

CAA'ING WHALE (Globicephalus deductor), a cetaceous animal, which was formerly placed by naturalists in the genus Delphinus, but is now distinguished therefrom on account of important characters of the limbs and teeth. Thus the phalanges are more numerous than in other genera of Delphinide, and the limbs have a lower and more approximated position. Among the species are the G. macrorhynchus of the South Seas, and G. scammonii of the North Pacific. They are all characterized by the rounded muzzle, and the convex and rounded top of the head. The general form of the animal is not лnlike that of the

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