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BERKELEY-BERKSHIRE.

the Sierra de Gador. Agriculture is also prosecuted | but, in point of fact, his system is a monument at to some extent. once of marvellous subtlety of mind and of the most BE'RKELEY, a small town of Gloucestershire, pious devotion of the intellectual powers to the 15 miles south-west of the town of Gloucester, on cause of religion. The object was, as the full title the small river Avon, a mile and a half east of its of the book itself sets forth, to inquire into and junction with the estuary of the Severn. Pop. of remove the causes of scepticism, atheism, and borough, 949; of parish, 4344. The town lies irreligion. It is only an illustration of the truth of in the fine vale of B., which is 25 miles long, the old saying, that extremes meet, if, in following and 4 broad, between the Severn on the west, out this pious purpose, he prepared the way for a and beech-covered hills on the east. This vale consubtler form of scepticism (in Hume's philosophy) The reader sists of rich meadow pasture-land, on a deep, fat than the world had previously known. loam, and is celebrated for its dairies and cheese. will find valuable assistance to the apprehension The latter is the far-famed 'Double Gloucester,' of of B.'s system in Sir William Hamilton's Discuswhich each cow yields 340 lb. a year. Near B. is the sions, and in his dissertations and notes to Reid's entrance to the B. and Gloucester Canal, navigable Philosophy of the Human Mind. It must suffice to for vessels of 600 tons. Some trade exists in timber mention here that B. was the first philosopher who and malt. B. Castle is an embattled building on proposed a scheme of absolute idealism. an eminence south-east of the town, and which, about 1150, was granted by Henry II. to Robert Fitzhardinge, with power to enlarge and strengthen it. Here Edward II. was murdered in 1327 by Maltravers and Gourney. In the civil wars of Charles I., the castle held out for the king, but was taken after a nine days' siege by the Parliamentarians. In the castle is preserved the cabin furniture of Drake the navigator. Dr. Jenner, the discoverer of vaccination, was a native of B., and is buried in the parish church of St. Mary here.

BE'RKELEY SOUND, the most frequented inlet of the East Falkland Island, near its north-east extremity. It is in lat. 51° 30' S., and long. 57° 56' W. Though it is difficult to enter, yet it contains several excellent harbours. Its shores yield ample supplies of water, cattle, and vegetables.

B.'s career as

In 1713, B. went to reside in London, where, in the same year, he published a defence of his ideal system, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous. Shortly after this he was appointed chaplain and secretary of legation under Lord Peterborough, whom he accompanied to Italy. In 1721, he returned to London; and in 1724, he became Dean of Derry, with an income of £1100, and resigned his fellowship.

B. was not a man to settle in the enjoyment of leisure and opulence. The Dean of Derry set to devising schemes of usefulness, fixing at last on one by which his deanery and income were to be exchanged for exile and £100 a year. This was the Bermudas College scheme for training pastors for the colonies, and missionaries to the American Indians. Swift, failing to induce him to give the project up, made influence with ministers to support it, which they promised to do. Full of hope, B. BERKELEY, GEORGE, Bishop of Cloyne, and prepared for his exile; he married in August 1728, a distinguished philosopher, was the eldest son of Anna Elvert, daughter of Right Hon. John Forster, William B., a cadet of the family of the Earl of Speaker of the Irish House of Commons, and soon Berkeley. The support proHe was born on the 12th March, 1684, after sailed for Rhode Island. at Kilcrin, near Thomastown, county of Kilkenny, mised by government was never given to him, and, Ireland. As a boy, he studied at the school of after six years, he returned to England heartbroken He had Kilerin, at which Swift also received his early with failure, and harassed by creditors. education; and in his fifteenth year he followed his barely returned, however, when (1734) he received great countryman to Trinity College, Dublin, where, the bishopric of Cloyne, as a mark of favour from the in 1707, he obtained a fellowship. At Trinity, he queen. He was now once more in the enjoyment of enjoyed the society of Swift, who patronised him, leisure for literature. Soon appeared the Minute as he did almost everybody, and who subsequently Philosopher, followed by various letters and pamphlets had a great deal to do in shaping his fortunes. on the state of the country, and in 1749 by A word an author began in 1707 (the to the Wise. In 1744, he gave the world his notions year in which he obtained his fellowship) by the of the virtues of tar-water in a book entitled Siris. publication of a work written three years before, Tar-water appears to have been in his thoughts as at the age of twenty, entitled Arithmetica absque in his system-which must have been saturated Algebra aut Euclide Demonstrata. This was fol- with it-from this time till his death. lowed, in 1709, by the celebrated essay, Towards a work was Farther Thoughts on Tar- Water, published New Theory of Vision, in which he demonstrated in 1752. The fact is, he was hypochondriacal for He died, 14th the dependence of the perceptions of distance, mag- many years before his death. nitude, and situation on the sense of touch. This January 1753, at Oxford, whither he had gone to essay led to considerable controversy at the time, live with his son, who was studying at Christ though its conclusions may now be considered as Church. A genial companion, an affectionate and not admitting of doubt. In 1733, B. produced a steady friend, he was loved by all of his contempopamphlet in vindication of it-viz., The Theory of raries who enjoyed his society; a graceful writer, Vision or Visual Language, showing the Universal a subtle philosopher, and an active churchman, his Presence and Providence of the Deity Vindicated whole life was devoted to usefulness, and ennobled and Explained. By this time he had propounded by the purity of his aspirations. The best edition his system of absolute idealism. His Treatise of his works is that published in London, 1784, concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge 2 vols. 4to. appeared so early as 1710. Its object was to BE'RKSHIRE, a midland county of England, undermine the materialism of the age, by denying, bounded N. by Gloucester, Oxford, and Bucks; E. on received principles of philosophy, the reality of by Middlesex; S. E. by Surrey; S. by Hampshire; an external world. If there is no external world, and W. by Wiltshire. Greatest length, 50 miles; he argued, the phenomena of sense can be explained average breadth, 15. It is the thirty-second of the only by supposing a Deity continually necessitating forty English counties in size; area, 752 square perception. B. has since been laughed at by many miles, nearly one-half of which is under tillage, onewho could not see how the premises laid in the fourth in pasture, and one-sixteenth in wood. B., philosophy of the day led to his system; by many which is one of the most beautiful of the English he will always be laughed at as an idle dreamer; counties, lies in the valley of the Thames, and has

His last

BERLENGAS-BERLIN.

:

c., may, with Ulrich von Hutten, be considered as the last worthy representative of the chivalry of the middle ages, then expiring. He was born at Jaxthausen, in Würtemberg, in the ancestral castle of his family, which may be traced back into the 10th c. His education was conducted by his uncle Kuno, with whom he attended the diet of Worms in 1495.

He gratified his passion for war at first by taking part in several of the quarrels between German princes, and at the siege of Landshut lost his right hand, which was replaced by one of iron, yet shewn at Jaxthausen. When the general peace of the country had been established under Maximilian I., Goetz retired to his castle. But a restless spirit, and the general turbulence of the time, involved him in continual feuds with the neighbouring barons and free cities, in which he displayed a mixture of lawless daring and chivalrous magnanimity. Having joined Duke Ulrich of Würtemberg against the Swabian league, on the duke's expulsion, he was taken prisoner, and had to pay a ransom of 2000 florins. In the Peasants' War of 1525, he took part with the insurgents, and was chosen leader of a part of their forces. In his narrative, he ascribes this step to compulsion; more likely it was his own restless and turbulent spirit, and a desire for revenge on his old enemies of the Swabian league. On the unfortunate issue of the war, he at first made his escape, but was afterwards fallen upon unawares by a band of leaguers, who extorted an oath that he would appear before the league when summoned. Accordingly, he had to appear at Augsburg, where he was kept in arrest for several years, and at last sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in his own castle, and, in case of his breaking this condition, to a fine of 20,000 florins. He passed eleven years in this state, and was only pardoned on the dissolution of the league. He died July 23, 1562, after having still taken part in campaigns in Hungary and in France. He wrote an account of his own life, published by Pistorius (Nürn. 1731; Bresl. 1813), which furnishes an excellent picture of the social life and manners of the period, and on which Goethe grounded his drama of Goetz von B., translated by Sir Walter Scott.

an undulating surface, rising in some parts into hills. of the Iron Hand,' a German knight of the 16th Older tertiary strata, consisting of the London clay, occupy the east part of the country; cretaceous strata, the middle; and oolitie, the west. A range of chalk-hills, or downs, connected with the Chilterns on the east, and the Marlborough Downs on the west, crosses the country into Wiltshire, from Reading to Wallingford, attaining at White Horse Hill (so called from the gigantic figure of a horse defined in the chalk-a relic of ancient times) a height of 893 feet. Between this range-the west part of which is occupied by sheep-walks-and a smaller oolitic one skirting the valley of the Thames, is the Vale of the White Horse, the richest part of the county, and drained by the Ock. To the south of the Downs is the fertile Vale of Kennet, drained by the river of that name, and its feeder, the Lambourn. To the east is the forest district, comprising Windsor Forest, part of Bagshot Heath, &c. The forest chiefly consists of hazel, oak, beech, ash, and alder. The Thames skirts the whole north border of the county, winding through a course of 100 miles, but in a direct line, only 52, and navigable nearly the whole way. It is the chief river of B., the other rivers of the county being its tributaries; of which the chief are the Kennet, Leddon, and Ock. The Kennet is navigable for 30 miles. The climate of B. is very healthy, being mild in the valleys, and bracing on the high lands. The soil varies greatly In the valleys, it is generally a fertile-loam, with a subsoil of chalk, gravel, or clay. The country between the valleys of Kennet and White Horse consists chiefly of sheep-walks; and along the Thames, and to the west of the Ridge Way, or Downs, it is chiefly dairy and pasture land. Under the meadows, on the Kennet, near Newbury, is a layer of peat, which is extensively burnt, and the ashes applied as a top-dressing to the pastures. The chief crops are oats and wheat. 'Double Gloucester' and 'pine-apple' cheese are exported in large quantities to London. There is a superabundance of horses. Swine are extensively reared, especially near Faringdon, the breed being one of the best in England. Property is very much divided, and the number of gentlemen's seats and villas is very great. The farms are generally of moderate size. The county is traversed by the Great Western Railway and its branch-lines, and BERLI'N, the capital of Prussia, and one of the by two canals. B. is divided into 20 hundreds, largest cities in Europe, is situated on the Spree in 151 parishes, and 12 poor-law unions. It returns lat. 52° 30' N., long 13° 24′ E. It shews throughout 9 members to parliament, 3 for the county, 2 each evidence of a comparatively modern origin. Although for Reading (the county town) and Windsor, and 1 it is ascertained that so far back as the 13th c., the each for Wallingford and Abingdon. Besides these central spot of the present city was inhabited, B. towns, there are the municipal boroughs of Newbury was long little more than a fishing-village, scattered (the scene of two severe conflicts in the civil war) on some small islands in the Spree, and upon its and Maidenhead, and the market-towns of Faringdon, right bank. The derivation of the name is disputed; Hungerford, Wantage, Workingham, East Ilsley, and but it is most probably deduced from a Slavonic Lambourn. Pop. 176,256. Education is well pro- word, Berle, indicative of its site in the middle of an vided for: schools, 507; scholars, 22,649. Places of extensive sandy plain. The growth of the city is by worship, 435 (Church of England, 206; Wesleyan no means to be attributed to the natural advantages | Methodists, 125). The county has no manufactures of its situation, for, in winter, it is cold and exposed; of any importance. The British and Roman remains and in summer, notwithstanding that the surroundare numerous, including Roman roads, and many camps and barrows. Of the old castles, the principal relic is Windsor (q. v.); of monastic establishments, the abbeys of Abingdon and Reading. The churches are small, and from the scarcity of building-stone, are often constructed of chalk and flint. There are many Norman churches, erected in the 12th and 13th centuries.

ing country is now cultivated, the reflected heat is oppressive, and the clouds of dust which rise render the residence unpleasant enough, without taking into account sundry inconveniences which testify that, on a perfect level, proper sanitary arrangements cannot be efficiently made. It was not till the great elector, Frederick William, had united the separate duchies of which Prussia is now formed, that B. became of consequence as the most central town, and the capital of a large state. His successor, the first king of Prussia, followed the footsteps of his preat the close of his reign, in the end of the 17th c., decessor in enlarging and beautifying the capital; and the population numbered about 50,000. In the or GOTTFRIED VON, next century, it received accessions of French and

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BERLE'NGAS, a group of rocky islands in the Atlantic, off the west coast of the Portuguese province of Estremadura, 10 miles north-west of Peniche. The principal one, Berlenga, is fortified, and has been used as a state-prison. BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ

BERLIN-BERLIOZ.

The

Bohemian colonists, driven into exile by religious | which has been the means of bringing within it a persecution. Every inducement was then held out literary and scientific circle of unexampled brilto bring foreigners to settle in the rising city. Under liancy. The philosophers Fichte, Hegel, and SchelFrederick the Great, B. continued to prosper. At his ling; the theologians Neander and Schleiermacher; death, the inhabitants numbered 145,000. The rate the jurist Savigny; Humboldt and the geographer of progress has been enormously accelerated in the Ritter; and the physiologist Muller-all made it present century. The population, inclusive of a gar- their residence. At present, the university cannot rison of 22,626 men, amounted, in 1867, to 702,437. boast such great names; but Raumer and Ranke, the The greater number of these are Protestants, there historians, still adorn it; and Encke in astronomy; being only some 15,000 Roman Catholics, and about Mitscherlich and Rose in chemistry; Dove in physics; the same number of Jews. Ehrenberg in natural history; Hengstenberg in theology; Casper in medical jurisprudence; Stahl, Gneist, and Keller in law-are men of high reputation. The number of students exceeds 2000. largest faculty is that of law, which numbers 600 students. In connection with the university are various museums of natural history, botany, &c.; and the magnificent Royal Library, containing 500,000 volumes, and nearly 5000 MSS. As intermediate schools, there are provided six gymnasia, or high schools; and in special branches, there are provided schools of technology, architecture, artillery, military engineering, and veterinary surgery. Learned societies of all kinds exist, as well as academies for the cultivation of the fine arts. The laws for the censorship of the press prevent newspapers from being numerous; but there are several magazines, and a large number of literary and scientific books are published annually.

The city is chiefly composed of long straight streets, succeeding each other with monotonous regularity. It occupies a large space in proportion to its population, its area being nearly 7000 acres. The houses and public buildings are built of brick, plastered or stuccoed outside, and they soon acquire a faded appearance. The 'Unter den Linden,' which is the principal street and fashionable promenade, is in design one of the handsomest streets in Europe. Long rows of lime-trees-which bear marks, however, of a not over-fertile soil-extend down the broad street which enters from the public park by the stately Brandenburg gate, built after the model of the Propylæum at Athens, and leads-flanked on either side by many of the principal public buildings, including the palaces of the Prince of Prussia and the Prince Frederick-William, the University, the Arsenal, the Opera-house, the Academy of Arts, and the Russian and English embassies-to the Palace Bridge, with its white marble statues. This bridge crosses a branch of the Spree to a garden bounded on three sides by the Royal Palace, the Cathedral, and the Old Museum. The present Royal Palace, within which are incorporated the remains of older buildings, was begun by Schlüter in 1699, and completed in 1716. It is imposing only from its mass. Within, it contains some fine rooms, and some valuable paintings; but since 1848, has been almost deserted by royalty. The Old Museum, which was designed by the great Prussian architect, Schinkel, has in front a beautiful colonnade, adorned by the frescoes of the painter Cornelius. This museum serves to contain the picture-gallery, which is very rich in paintings by the early Italian and German masters, collected under the art-critic Waagen; and also the collections of ancient sculpture and other antiquities placed under the superintendence of the distinguished archæologist Gerhard. Behind the Old Museum stands the new, not externally attractive, but internally fitted up with great magnificence. The staircase is decorated with frescoes by Kaulbach. The chief part of the contents is formed of the Egyptian antiquities brought home by the expedition under Lepsius, the ethnological collection, and the fine collection of engravings. The cathedral is a building of no beauty. A new cathedral, upon an immense scale, was projected; but after making a little progress, was stopped for want of funds; and its unfinished fragments disfigure the otherwise remarkable island upon which the buildings just mentioned are situated. In the immediate neighbourhood is the Arsenal, considered by the Prussians to be one of the best examples of renaissance architecture. Of Gothic architecture, B. possesses few examples. It has no ancient churches, or other buildings, of any value in an architectural point of view--or even in a historical; and though one or two churches have recently been erected in modern Gothic, their effect is not very successful. Throughout the city, a large number of statues of military heroes are distributed, the most remarkable among them being the equestrian statue by Rauch, erected in 1851 to the memory of Frederick the Great.

Since 1810, B. has been the seat of a university,

The trade and commerce of B. are extensive. The city has long been famous for beautiful castings in iron, and the porcelain manufactured has a good reputation. Manufactures of cotton and linen exist; and paper, carpets, surgical, optical, mathematical, and musical instruments are made in some quantity.

These different manufactures, although many of them were much injured during the convulsions of 1848, have recently received a considerable impulse from the railways, which have placed the city in communication with all parts of Central Europe. The charitable institutions are numerous; the most important being the two magnificent hospitals of the Charité and the Bethunien. Since 1808, the city has possessed a municipal constitution; but the powers of the magistrates are very limited.

BERLIOZ, HECTOR, a fertile musical composer, was born December 11, 1803, at La-Côte-St.-André, in the department of Isére, France, where his father was a physician. Against his father's wishes, who intended him to follow the medical profession, he devoted himself to music, and proceeding to Paris, studied at the Conservatoire de Musique under Lesuer and Reicha. In 1828 the second prize at the Conservatoire was awarded to him; and in 1830, his cantata of Sardanapalus won the first. He now went to Italy, where he resided about two years; and on his return, published several compositions, the merits of which were much canvassed. His works are too numerous for specification; bnt among the most successful are the symphonies of Harold, Romeo et Juliette, and the Symphonie Funèbre et Triomphale, the requiem for the funeral of General Damrémont, 1837; the overture to Carnaval Romain, and the Hymne à la France, performed August 1, 1844, by an orchestra of almost a thousand musicians. has since conducted many concerts in Russia, Germany, and England. In 1839, he was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour; and in 1856, was elected a member of the Institute at Paris. He is also librarian to the Conservatoire. The peculiarity of the compositions of B. consists in their endeavour to make instrumental music the exponent of particular feelings as well as general emotions. Some critics are of opinion that this notion has led the composer into extravagance and

B.

BERM-BERN.

incoherence; while others speak in high terms of the freshness and individuality which characterise his style, and look upon him as the chief of the romantic school of music.

BERM, in Fortification, is a ledge or pathway, from 3 to 8 feet in width, at the bottom of the outside of a rampart, where it joins the scarp or inner side of the ditch. It is almost on a level with the natural surface of the ground; and serves in part as a passage-way for the troops of the garrison, and in part as a means of preventing the ditch from being filled with earth and rubbish, when the rampart is battered by the besiegers.

BERMO'NDSEY, a south-east suburb of London, on the south bank of the Thames, and traversed by the Greenwich Railway. It has extensive tanyards and wharfs. Pop. of parish, 48,128.

under tillage of every description only 1227 acres; in grass for cattle-fodder, 33; and in wood or pasture, 10,339. Of the cultivated grounds, the main crops are potatoes, onions, and other garden-vegetables, arrow-root, maize, &c. Besides being useful as a station for those British vessels of war which are charged with the care of the West Indies on the one side, and the northern provinces on the other, B. forms an important depôt for convicts, who are lodged in a large prison, and employed in various kinds of labour. Between B. and Halifax, Nova Scotia, there is a regular steamer carrying the mails. In 1861, the population was about 11,000; 4700 white, and 6300 coloured. In both races, the preponderance of females was somewhat remarkable, being 739 in the former, and 759 in the latter. The above census confined itself to residents, excluding the servants, whether civil or military, of the government, and the convicts brought from England; and, as those two classes amounted to 1535, the grand total would reach 12,600—as nearly as possible a mouth to an acre. In the B., emancipation has been decidedly beneficial, though here, as in Antigua, it was carried at once into full effect without the intermediate stage of apprenticeship. The group is under the authority of a governor, a council of 9 members, and an assembly of 36. There are 12 free, and 9 private schools. With regard to religion, more than three-fourths of the population belong to the Church of England, which has 4 clergymen. The Presbyterians, Wesleyans, and Roman Catholics, have one minister each.

BERMU'DAS, or SO'MMERS'S ISLES, were so named respectively from Bermudez, a Spaniard, who first sighted them in 1527, and from Sir George Sommers, an Englishman, whose shipwreck here in 1609 was the immediate occasion of their being colonised from Virginia-itself only 4 years old in 1611. This low and lonely archipelago is a mere group of specks, for, though it numbers perhaps 500 islets, yet it measures only about 12,000 acres in all; the whole occupying a space of about 20 miles in length by little more than 6 in breadth. The value of this natural fortress, which can hardly be overrated, arises from its situation. In lat. 32° 20' N., and long. 64° 50′ W., the B. occupy, commercially and politically, a singularly BERN, or BERNE, the most populous, and commanding position. At a distance of 600 miles next to that of the Grisons, the most extensive from Cape Hatteras, in North Carolina, they are canton of Switzerland; its area being nearly 2600 about equally remote from the north of Maine and square miles. It lies between lat. 46° 20′ and 47° from the south of Florida; again, between the two 30' N., and long. 6° 50′ and 8° 27' E. It has grand divisions of British America, they form an France on the north; on the other three sides, it almost indispensable bond of union; and lastly, is surrounded by its sister-cantons. B. is one they flank, on either side, the two living highways of the three governing cantons of the Swiss Conwhich respectively lead from the North Atlantic to federation (since 1849, it has been the permanent the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Gulf of Mexico to seat of the Swiss government), and had, in 1860, a the North Atlantic. The four principal islands are population of 468,516-about one-fifth of the total St George's, 34 miles in length; Bermuda, 15; Somer- inhabitants of Switzerland. Of these 54,000 were set, 3; and Ireland, 3-the breadth ranging between Roman Catholics, the rest Protestants. The fertile 2 miles and 1 furlong. The minor islands of St. valleys of the Aar and the Emmen divide the David, Cooper, Smith, Long-Bird, Nonsuch, &c., mountainous Alpine region in the south from the form numerous picturesque creeks and bays of great Jura mountains in the north. The valleys of size and depth, such as the Great Sound, Castle Simmenthal, Lauterbrunnen, Grindelwald, and Hasli, Harbour, Harrington Sound, and others. Most of in the south, called the Bernese Oberland, are the other members of the group are individually celebrated for their beauty. The lakes of Thun, insignificant, many of them indeed without name or Brienz, Neuchatel, and Bienne are in B., which is inhabitant. St. George's Isle, the military station of watered by the Aar and its several tributaries. The the colony, commands the entrance of the only climate, from the great difference in the elevations passage for large vessels-the narrow and intricate of the territory, is necessarily very variable, and channel, which leads to its landlocked haven, being subject to sudden changes, and frequent rains and defended by strong batteries. From the strange fogs, but it is generally healthy. The districts shapes of most of the islands, and the number of of the Aar and the Emmen are the most fruitful, spacious lagoons, the communications are almost as producing corn and fruits of various kinds, and necessarily by water as those of Venice; while the affording excellent pasturage for cattle, which, cedar-boats glide under the bluest sky, through an with dairy produce, form the chief agricultural element so clear as to reveal, even to its lowest wealth of Bern. Corn and potatoes are not raised depths, the many varieties of excellent fish sporting in sufficient quantities for home consumption. among the coral rocks, and the exquisitely varie- The vine grows in some districts, and hemp and gated shells. On the structure and formation of flax in small quantities are raised. The horses the archipelago, it is necessary merely to add, that of the Emmenthal are much prized. The lakes it is the most northerly point on the globe where abound with salmon and trout. Iron, lead, and the living zoophyte still piles up its submarine archi- copper are found in the canton, which has also tecture. The climate may be said to complete the quarries of gypsum, marble, freestone, and granite. paradise, resembling that of Persia, with the pecu- Its manufactures, which are not extensive, consist liar addition of a constant sea-breeze. Between chiefly of linen, coarse woollens, leather, iron and December and March, the thermometer ranges from copper wares, articles of wood, and watches. The 60° to 66°; in June, from 83° to 86°; and between canton is traversed by good roads, and its lakes and April and September, from 75° to 79°. As the dew- the river Aar are well supplied with steam-packets. point ranges high, the air is moist at all seasons. The educational condition of the canton is good. With respect to productions, the entire soil presents B. entered the Swiss Confederation, in which it now

BERN-BERNARD.

holds the second rank, in 1352. In the 15th and of Christendom. He was honoured with the title of 16th centuries, it added to its possessions Aargau and Vaud, which it lost during the wars of the first Napoleon; but it received in return Bienne and its territory, and the greatest part of the bishopric of Basel. It furnishes a contingent of 5824 men to the federal army.

BERN, capital of the above canton, is situated in lat. 46° 57′ N., and long. 7° 26′ E., on a lofty sandstone promontory, more than 1700 feet above the sea, formed by the winding Aar, which surrounds it on three sides, and is crossed by two stone-bridges, one of which is a magnificent structure, upwards of 900 feet long, with a central arch 150 feet wide and 93 feet high. The fourth side was defended by fortifications, but these have been converted into public walks. B. has an imposing appearance from a distance, and a nearer view discloses one of the best and most regularly built towns one of the best and most regularly built towns in Europe, as it is the finest in Switzerland. The houses are massive structures of freestone, resting upon arcades, which are lined with shops, and furnish covered walks on both sides of the street. Rills of water flow through the streets, which are also adorned with numerous fountains. There are many fine public promenades in the environs, and the view of the Alpine peaks from the city is magnificent. The principal public buildings are a Gothic cathedral, founded in 1421, with some interesting tablets and relics; a new and magnificent structure, designed to accommodate the Swiss diet and administration; the mint, the hospital, and the university. B. has an interesting museum, and a valuable public library of 40,000 volumes. The manufacturing industry of B. is not great gunpowder, firearms, leather, straw-hats, and paper, are the chief articles. It has a considerable trade in the produce of the surrounding districts. Pop. in the produce of the surrounding districts. Pop. 29,016. B. was founded by Duke Berthold V., in 1191, who gave it the name B., because he had killed a bear on the spot. A charter from Frederick II., in 1218, made it a free imperial city, and it gradually extended its possessions until it became an independent state; and between 1288 and 1339, successfully resisted the attacks of Rudolf of Hapsburg, Albert his son, and Louis of Bavaria. When the French entered B. in 1798, they found 30,000,000 of francs in the treasury. The corporate property of B. is very large-sufficient to defray all municipal expenses, provide the whole of the citizens with fuel gratis, and besides, to leave a surplus for annual distribution among them. B. is the residence of foreign ministers; and since 1849, the permanent seat of the Swiss government and diet. Haller, the distinguished physiologist, was born at Bern. Owing to a tradition which derives the name of the city from bären (the German for bears), bears have for several centuries been maintained in B. at the expense of the community. The French, when they captured B. in 1798, took possession of the bears, and sent them to the Jardin des Plants, Paris; but the Bernese have since secured other specimens of their favourite animals, which are one of the 'sights' of the city.

BERNADOTTE. See CHARLES XIV.

BERNARD, SAINT, of Clairvaux, one of the most influential theologians of the middle ages, was born at Fontaine, near Dijon, in Burgundy, 1091; became a monk of Citeaux in 1113; founded a new branch of that order at Clairvaux, in Champagne, and him self became its first abbot in 1115; died August 20, 1153 and was canonised by Alexander III., 1174. His ascetic life, solitary studies, and stirring eloquence, made him, during his lifetime, the oracle

the 'mellifluous doctor,' and his writings were termed 'a river of paradise.' He rejected the doctrine of the immaculate conception, which had been introduced into the French Church, and rose above the cruel prejudices of his age in repressing the monkish persecutions of the Jews in Germany. with the disastrous crusade of 1146. Charged by B. is perhaps most widely known in connection of France and Germany, he accomplished his the pope to excite the religious zeal of the people mission with fatally memorable success. Fields, towns, cities, and castles were in many places almost depopulated, and innumerable legions, fired by his prophetic eloquence, hurried to the East, nine-tenths of whom never saw their homes again.

Regarding B. in his more spiritual aspect, we may say that his mystic, but at the same time practical, Christian doctrine was a wholesome antidote to the dry and cold scholasticism which prethe intolerance with which he treated Abelard (see vailed among the churchmen of his age, although Luther says of St. B.: If there ever lived on the ABELARD) and Gilbert de Porrée must be reprobated. earth a God-fearing and holy monk, it was St. B. of Clairvaux.' In the course of his life, he founded 160 monasteries. His writings are exceedingly numerous. They consist of epistles, sermons, and theological treatises. Of the first, we possess 439; all instinct with genius, though it is difficult for of the second, 340; and of the third, 12. They are The best edition of the works of St. B. is that of us now to appreciate their extraordinary influence. Mabillon, printed at Paris in 1690 (2 vols. fol.), reprinted at Venice in 1750 (6 vols. fol.), at Paris in 1835-1840 (4 vols. 8vo.), and again in 1854 (4 vols. 8vo). The monks of the reformed branch called, after him, Bernardines. He gave name also, of the Cistercians, which he instituted, are often in France, to the nuns of the Cistercian order, of which his sister, St. Humbeline, is said to have been

the founder.

BE'RNARD, GREAT SAINT, Mons Jovis, a famous mountain-pass in the Pennine Alps, between Piedmont and the Valais. The pass attains an elevation of more than 8000 feet above the sea-level; and almost on its very crest, on the edge of a small lake, which is frozen over nine months out of the twelve, stands the hospice, founded in 962, by Bernard de Menthon, a Savoyard nobleman, for the benefit of pilgrims to Rome, and now largely taken advantage of by travellers across the Alps. The hospice, said to be the highest habitation in Europe, is occupied by ten or twelve St. Augustine monks, who, with their noble dogs of Saint Bernard breed, have rescued many hundred travellers from death by exposure to cold, or burial in the snow, which in winter ranges from 10 to 40 feet in depth. The humanity of the monks shortens their own lives. very considerably, the rigorous cold-which has been known to be 29°, and is frequently as low as 18 and 20° below zero F.-and the difficulty of respiration, often compelling them to leave with ruined health before they have completed the period of their vow-fifteen years. They enter on their humane mission at the age of eighteen. The hospice is a substantial stone-building, capable of affording sleeping-accommodation to 70 or 80 travellers, and shelter to about 300. As many as 500 or 600 persons have taken advantage of the hospitality of the monks in one day, and it is calculated that 8000 or 9000 travellers are annually indebted to their kindness. The resources of the monks are mainly derived from voluntary subscriptions and gifts, but they draw some trifle from independent property. Formerly, they had much more

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