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CAMISARDS-CAMP.

appointed dictator a second time. He achieved a decisive victory over the invaders, rebuilt Rome, and obtained new victories over the Volsci, and others. In 386 B. C., he was elected dictator for the third time, but refused the office. In 381 B. C., C. was victorious in the war of Rome against Præneste and other Latin towns; and in 368 B. C., he was elected to his fourth dictatorship, but abdicated during the same year. In 367 B. C., when war broke out with the Gauls, C., though 80 years old, accepted the dictatorship for the fifth time, defeated the barbarians near Alba, and made peace between patricians and plebeians. After this, he erected near the Capitol a temple to Concord, and having retired from public life, died 365 B. C., of the plague, lamented by the whole Roman people.

CAMISARDS. See CEVENNES.

CA'MLET (from Arab. chamal, fine) is properly a fabric made from the hair of the Angora-goat (q. v.). The camlets made in Britain are either wholly of wool, or of wool mixed with cotton or linen, and spun hard.

great achievements of Portuguese heroism are represented. Among the most famous passages are the tragical story of Inez de Castro, and the apparition of the giant Adamastor, who appears as the Spirit of the Storm to Vasco de Gama, when crossing the Cape. The versification of The Lusiad is extremely charming. Patriotic sentiments pervade the whole work. Besides his epic poem, C. wrote sonnets, odes, elegies, eclogues, epigrams, satires, epistles, and three comedies-Os Amphitryoes (after Plautus), King Seleucus, and Filodemo. The latest and best complete edition of his poems appeared in three volumes (Hamburg, 1834). The best edition of The Lusiad was published in Paris (1817), reprinted in 1819, and again, with emendations by Berdier, in 1823. The Lusiad has been translated into Spanish, French, Italian, English, Polish aud German.

CAMO'GLIA, a town of Northern Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa, about 13 miles east-south-east of the Its inhabitants, amounting to city of that name.

5899, are chiefly engaged in fishing.

CA'MOMILE. See CHAMOMILE.

It

CAMOENS, LUIS DE, the epic poet of Portugal, was born about 1524, at Lisbon, and studied the ancient classics at Coimbra. Ón his return to Lisbon, he fell in love with a lady of honour, Catharina d'Atayada. This affair was the beginning of all the poet's misfortunes. Having been banished by royal authority to Santarem, C. joined the expedition of John III. against Marocco, and lost his right eye in a naval engagement with the Moors in the Strait of Gibraltar. On his return to Lisbon, his bravery as a soldier was no more honoured than his genius as a poet. Disappointed in all his hopes, he determined to leave for ever his native land, and sailed for India, 1553. Offended by certain abuses of the Portuguese authorities in India, C. ventured to expose them in a satire, entitled Disparates na India, Follies in India,' in which he treated even the viceroy with ridicule. For this offence, the poet was banished, 1556, to Macao, where he lived several years, and was engaged in writing Os Lusiadas. Here and several centurious were C held the unpoetical but probably lucrative post administrator of the effects of deceased persons; and having saved, as he thought, a competency for his future life, was recalled from his banish ment, 1561. Unhappily, in returning to Goa, he suffered shipwreck, and lost all his property, excepting his epic poem. After other wanderings and misfortunes, C. took ship for Lisbon, where he arrived in 1569, with no other wealth but his epic. He dedicated The Lusiad to the young king, Sebastian, who was very gracious; but, nevertheless, all the real patronage bestowed on C. consisted of a very small pension (about £4), and permission to remain at the court of Lisbon. Even this small pittance was taken away after the death of Sebastian, and C. was left in such poverty, that a faithful Indian servant begged in the streets of Lisbon for the support of the great epic poet of Portugal. C.'s lyric poems, written during this time of destitution, contain many pathetic lamentations. He died obscurely in the hospital at Lisbon, 1579; and sixteen years afterwards, when it was proposed to erect a splendid monument to his memory, there was some difficulty in finding his burial-place.

CA'MOUFLET, in Military Pyrotechny, is a stinking composition enclosed in paper-cases. is used in siege-works, to blow into the faces of the sappers and miners, when hostile parties come within reach of each other, and thus to distress and confuse them.

The Lusiad (Os Lusiadas, 'the Lusitanians') celebrates the chief events in the history of Portugal, and is remarkable as the only modern epic poem which is pervaded by anything like the true national and popular spirit of ancient epic poems. It is a gallery of epic pictures, in which all the

CAMP (Fr., from Lat. campus, a plain, or level field). The signification of this word in English is rather that which belongs to the Latin castrum, an encampment, or castra, a collection of tents, huts, and other structures, for the accommodation and protection of troops, than that which its etymology would more directly indicate. The regular system of encampment ultimately adopted by the Romans, was forced upon them by degrees. The most complete account of it is furnished to us by Polybius, A plan will be found in Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, constructed for the purpose of illustrating his description. When a Roman army was about to encamp, a tribune sent on before, to select a suitable site for the purpose. As soon as the locality was determined on, they chose the spot for the prætorium or general's tent, and marked it with a white flag. Around the prætorium, as a sort of centre or heart to the whole system, the rest of the C. was laid out. It was generally placed on an elevated position, in order that the general might have the rest of the encampment under his eye, and be able to transmit his orders with greater facility. Polybius himself tells us, that the best conception which can be formed of a Roman C. of the more permanent kind is by regarding it as a military town, resembling in many respects no doubt that which has recently grown up at Aldershot (q. v.). The streets were broader than those usually to be found in towns, the wider ones measuring 100, and the narrower 50 feet; and the forum, as its name indicates, was a sort of public market-place. A space of 200 feet was left vacant all round between the tents and the ramparts, partly to afford space for the arrangements of the army, and for stowing away any booty that might be captured, but chiefly to protect the soldiers' huts from incendiary attempts from without. In form, the Roman C. was square, except in the case in which it was intended to embrace within its ramparts four legions, or two consular armies, when it became an oblong rectangle. The C. was surrounded by a fosse or trench (fossa), which was generally 9 feet deep and 12 broad. On the top of the rampart, which was of earth, there were

stakes.

CAMP EQUIPAGE-CAMPAGNA DI ROMA.

It is believed that, during the middle ages, the plan adopted by the Romans in their camps was more or less adhered to, seeing that the weapons employed, which mainly determined the character of the troops, were nearly the same. In Britain, before the arrival of the Romans, and also during the Saxon and Danish periods, the camps, usually circular in form, appear to have been somewhat rude in character, with the cavalry grouped round the standard in the centre, and the infantry placed near the front.

The principles of castrametation, or camp-formation, underwent much change after the invention of gunpowder, owing to the necessity for defending the C. from artillery. Modern camps, of different kinds, will be found described under ENCAMPMENT.

CAMP EQUIPAGE is a general name for all the tents, furniture, fittings, and utensils carried with an army, applicable to the domestic rather than the warlike wants of the soldier. In the days when armour was worn, the C. E. was enormously heavy and complicated. In the present day, a certain amount of C. E. is provided for a given number of troops. See ENCAMPMENT, TENT, &c.

The labour of constructing the rampart | of those which retained the form of the simple and the fosse was divided between the allies and encampment, is that at Ardoch in Strathearn, Perththe Roman legions, the former making the sides shire, in the grass-covered mounds and ridges of along which they were stationed, and the legions which most of the divisions of the C. have been disthe rest. The task of superintending the construc- tinctly traced by antiquaries. For further information tion of the C. amongst the Romans was intrusted to on this subject, the reader is referred to General the tribunes; amongst the allies, to the præfects. Roy's Military Antiquities in Great Britain, and the Before the arrival of the troops, the different parts Caledonia Romana of the late Mr. Robert Stuart. In of the C. were so distinctly marked out and these works will be found ample accounts of some measured off, that they at once proceeded to their of the more remarkable Roman camps in Britain; respective stations, as if they had entered a well- those described by Roy being rendered intelligible known city, and were marching to their quarters. by large engravings. The discipline of the C. was of the strictest kind. The tribunes administered an oath against theft both to freemen and slaves, and two maniples were chosen to keep the via principalis, which was a place of general resort, clean and in good repair. The other occupations connected with the C., too numerous to be mentioned here, were portioned out in like manner; and the superintendence of the whole was intrusted to two tribunes chosen by lot from each legion, and appointed to serve for two months. The præfects of the allies possessed a similar authority, which, however, seems to have been limited to their own troops. Every morning at daybreak, the centurions and horsemen presented themselves to the tribunes, and these, in their turn, received their orders from the consul. The watch word for the night, marked on a four-cornered piece of wood, was given out with much formality. The night was divided into four watches, each of three hours' length; and there was a curious arrangement for ascertaining that guard was kept with vigilance. The soldiers of the watch companies received from the tribune a number of small tablets, with certain marks upon them, and these tablets were collected during the night by the horsemen whose duty it was to visit the posts, from such of the guards as they found on duty. Where these inspectors found the guards asleep or absent, they called upon the bystanders to witness the fact, and then passed on to the next. In the morning, the inspectors appeared before the tribunes, and gave up the tablets they had received, when the guards whose tablets were not produced were required to account for them. A regular scale of rewards and punishments was established in the camp. In comparing the encampments of the Romans with those of his own countrymen, Polybius tells us that the Greeks trusted mainly to a judicious selection of their ground, and regarded the natural advantages which they thus secured as supplying in a great measure the place of artificial means of defence. The Greeks, consequently, had no regular form of C., and no fixed places were assigned to the different divisions of the army. When the practice of drawing up the army according to cohorts, introduced by Marius and Cæsar, was adopted, the internal arrangements of the C. experienced a corresponding change. Latterly, even the square form was abandoned, and the C. was made to suit the nature of the ground. It was always held to be of importance, however, that the C. occupied a defensible position; that it could not be overlooked; and that it had a command of water.

CAMP FOLLOWERS are the sutlers and dealers

in small-wares who follow an army. In India, owing
to the peculiar habits and customs of the Hindus,
and the large number of servants retained by English
officers, the C. F. are in immense number; comprising
servants, sutlers, cantiniers, hostlers, water-carriers,
February, 1839, when a Bengal army of 15,000 men
snake-charmers, dancers, conjurors, and women.
left Shikarpoor for Afghanistan, it was accompanied
by no fewer than 85,000 C. F.: the comniander
took with him six weeks' food for the whole 100,000.

In

All English commanders in India find this regulation however, C. F. are regarded as necessary; they are a very burdensome one. Even in European armies, under the control of the commanding officer, and are subject to the Articles of War-not, however, in cantonments, only in the field. French armies are accompanied by women much more largely than English.

It has a fine

CAMPA'GNA, a town of Naples, in the province of Principato Citra, is situated between high mountains, about 20 miles east of Salerno. cathedral, several convents, and a large annual fair. Pop. 8192.

CAMPAGNA DI ROMA, an undulating, uncultivated, and unhealthy plain of Italy surrounding Rome, including the greatest part of ancient Latium, and now forming the papal delegation of Frosinone When stationary camps (castra stativa) came into and a great part of the Comarca di Roma. Its more general use, we hear of several parts which length is variously stated, arising from the fact are not mentioned by Polybius, for example, the that different authorities measure it from different infirmary (valetudinarium), the farriery (veterina- points. But supposing the name to apply to the rium), the forge (fabrica), &c.; and as a great variety district extending from Cape Linaro, south of Civita of troops then came to be employed, they must, of Vecchia, to Terracina, beyond the Pontine Marshes, course, have had new stations appointed to them in its length is about 90 miles; and its breadth inland, the camp. Many of the stationary camps ultimately to the Alban and Sabine hills, is stated at from 27 became towns, and to this is ascribed the origin of to 40 miles. A broad strip of sandy plain skirts most of the towns in England the names of which the Mediterranean. The ground, which never rises end in cester or chester. Amongst the most perfect above 200 feet above the sea, is almost entirely

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CAMPAIGN-CAMPANIA.

volcanic, and the lakes are formed by craters of extinct volcanoes. The vapours rising from this district, and especially from the Solfatara (q. v.), produce the pestilential atmosphere styled Aria Cattiva. The number of inhabitants is very small, and in summer they are driven from the C. by its pestilent air, and seek shelter in Rome and other neighbouring places. In autumn, herdsmen descend from the Appenines to the C. with their herds, the pasturage in some parts being rich and abundant. This district was not always uncultivated and depopulated, as we now find it, for Domitian and Hadrian built here their splendid villas. Wars and devastations, the 'black death' (q. v.) in the 14th c., which greatly thinned the population, and inundations from the Tiber, have been the main causes of the present state of the C.; but, according to Livy, it was always an unhealthy district, even when well cultivated. Some of the popes, especially Pius VI., have endeavoured to drain the Pontine Marshes, and, during the dominion of the French in Italy, General Miollis made great improvements in drainage, timber-planting, and cultivation in the campagna. CAMPAIGN generally means a connected series of military operations, forming a distinct stage or step in a war. Under the old system of warfare, when armies kept the field only during the summer months, a C. was understood to include all that was done by an army from the time it took the field till it went again into winter quarters. Now that winter is no longer allowed to arrest military operations, it is more difficult to say where one C. ends and another begins. Some writers make a C. include all the steps taken to accomplish some one immediate object.

1568, at Stilo in Calabria, and studied at Naples and
Cosenza. The writings of Telesius first awakened
his doubts respecting that pile of artificial dogmas
styled the 'scholastic philosophy.' The results of
his studies were given in his Philosophia Sensibus
Demonstrata, &c. (Naples, 1591), which contained a
defence of Telesius. His superiority in disputations
exposed him to the hatred and false accusations of
the orthodox monks and schoolmen. He was in
consequence compelled to flee from Naples to Rome,
and thence to Florence, Venice, and Bologna. After-
wards, he returned to Calabria, but having involved
himself in a political conspiracy, he was seized and
confined in a Neapolitan dungeon for 27 years; tried
five times, and tortured seven; accused of heresy ;
and declared the author of a book which had been
published thirty years before he was born. In 1626
Pope Urban VIII. had him brought to the prison of
the Inquisition at Rome, but immediately liberated
him, and treated him in a very generous manner.
After being again persecuted by the Spanish govern-
ment, C., who had formed the friendship of the
French ambassador at Rome, the Duc de Noailles,
obtained a letter of introduction to Cardinal Riche-
lieu, and secretly left for France, where he was
He died in the Dominican
monastery of St. Honoré, near Paris, 1639.
graciously received.
of his works-De Gentilismo non Retinendo (Paris,
1636), Astrologicorum Libri VII. (Lyon, 1629), Pro-
Exordium Metaphysicæ Nova, De Sensu Rerum et
dromus Philosophie Instaurande (Frankfort, 1617),
Magia (Frankfort, 1620)—were written during his
ion to that confused fermentation of new ideas
imprisonment. His philosophical views give expres-

Most

which was characteristic of the close of the 16th and opening of the 17th c.-bold and clear opinions CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE, reader strangely mingled with commonplaces, and with to the daughters of Louis XV., was born in Paris, astrogical dreams and fancies. It may seem October 6, 1752. She was favoured by Marie strange that C. should have been patronised by the Antoinette, and gave her royal patroness numerous pope; but this favour was gained, not by his specuproofs of her fidelity. When the unfortunate queen lative works, but by several writings in defence was conveyed to the Temple, she wished to share of the Roman Catholic Church. His De Monarchia her captivity, but was refused entrance by Petion. Hispanica Discursus is a work of great power and During the Reign of Terror, she remained concealed value, comprising a sketch of the political world at Combertin. After the fall of Robespierre, she of C.'s time, with special reference to Spain. It opened a boarding-school at St. Germain-en-Laye, was translated into English during Cromwell's which was patronised by Josephine Beauharnais, Protectorate. who sent her daughter Hortense to it. In 1806, Napoleon appointed her lady-superintendent of the Institution at Ecouen for the education of the daughters of the officers of the Legion of Honour. After the Restoration, this institution was suppressed, and Madame C. retired to Mantes, where she died, May 16, 1822 She is chiefly remembered on account of her interesting works-Mémoires sur la Vie Privée de la Reine Marie Antoinette (4 vols., 5th ed., Par. 1824), Journal Anecdotique (Par. 1824), and Correspondance Inédite avec la Reine Hortense (2 vols., Par. 1835)—giving recollections of the court of Louis XV., of Marie Antoinette, the Revolution, and some traits from the private character of Napoleon.

CAMPA'NA, LA, a town of Andalusia, Spain, situated on the Madre-Viega, a tributary of the Guadalquiver, about 37 miles east-north-east of Seville. The inhabitants, numbering 5380, are engaged chiefly in agricultural pursuits, and in weaving and brickmaking.

CAMPANA'RIO, a town of Estremadura, Spain, about 62 miles east-south-east of Badajos. It is an ill-built place, with narrow, uncared-for streets. It has manufactures of linens and ropes, and a trade in the agricultural produce of the neighbourhood. Pop. 5400.

CAMPANELLA, TOMMA'so, a Dominican monk celebrated for his philosophical ability, was born in

CAMPA'NIA, anciently a province of Central Italy, having Capua as its capital (now known as the province Terra di Lavoro, Naples), was bounded on the S. by Lucania, E. by Samnium, N. by Latium, and W. by the Tyrrhenian Sea. It was one of the most productive plains in the world, producing in extraordinary abundance corn, wine, and oil; and both by Greek and Roman writers is celebrated for its soft and genial climate, the beauty of its landscapes, and the excellence of its harbours. It was the regio felix of the Romans, who built here many of their most splendid villas, &c. Through it passed the Appian Way, the greatest high-road of Italy. The promontory Misenum, Mount Vesuvius, the river Vulturnus, the Herculaneum, Pompeii, Nola, Salernum, Capua, &c., towns Baiæ, Cumæ, Linternum, Puteoli, Naples, belonged to Campania. It was the oldest Greek settlement in Italy, having been colonised, according to the later chronologers, about 1050 B. C.; but this is in all probability too early a date. It was next conquered by the Etruscans, and several of the towns above mentioned, such as Capua and Nola, were founded by that people. The Etruscans then succumbed to the more warlike and hardy Samnites, who, in their turn, yielded to the irresistible valour of Rome (340 B. C.). Through all these vicissitudes cf conquest, the substratum of the people remained as at the beginning. The mass of the Campanians

CAMPANILE-CAMPBELL.

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were essentially of Oscan race, and Oscan they familiar to every one as the most common fieldremained. Indeed, it is mainly from them that our flowers. It is a native of the central parts of knowledge of the Oscan language is derived, and Europe.-Medicinal virtues were formerly ascribed one of their towns-Atella, between Capua and

Naples had the honour of introducing upon the early Roman stage a species of popular drama or comedy, which was greatly relished for its quaint and vigorous humour. See ATELLANE.

CAMPANILE (Ital. from Mid. Lat. campana, a bell), a name adopted from the Italian to signify a bell-tower of the larger kind, and usually applied only to such as are detached from the church. Scarcely any of the existing bell-towers of England answer to the Italian conception of the C., but it is said that there was a very fine one at Salisbury, 200 feet in height, which was destroyed by Wyatt. In Italy, they are found everywhereat Bologna, Padua, Ravenna, Cremona, Venice. Perhaps the most remarkable are the so-called 'leaning tower' of Pisa, and the C. of Florence. The former, which is circular in form, is decorated with columns and arcades to the summit of its eight stories, and presents a very imposing appearance, reminding the traveller of the Coliseum at Rome, from which, and the now destroyed Septizonium, the idea of it is said to have been taken by the architects Bonano of Pisa, and Wilhelm of Innspruck. But though less curious, the famous C. of Giotto is perhaps even more worthy of the travellers's attention. It was erected in 1334, with the express object of surpassing, both in height and in richness of workmanship, any of the remains of antiquity. In form, it is a parallelopiped, and is of the same dimensions from bottom to top. Though it is very lofty-267 feet-it consists of only four stories, of which the tallest are the uppermost and undermost, and the windows in the upper story are rather larger than those in the two beneath, the object being to counteract the diminution to the eye occasioned by the greater distance. The effect of this arrangement has been much praised by architects; but there seems ground for scepticism as to its advantages. The style is the real Italian Gothic, which unites simplicity with great richness of ornamentation. The original design of Giotto was that a spire of 100 braccia in height should have surmounted the present structure, and on the summit may be seen the four great piers from which it was intended that it should have risen. The splendid C. of Florence, in its present condition, must thus be regarded only as a fragment. There is a fine C. at Seville, 350 feet in height, which was built by Guever the Moor in 1568. It is called La Giralda, from a brazen figure, which, though it weighs a ton and a half, turns with the wind.

CAMPA'NULA (Lat., a little bell), a genus of plants of the natural order Campanulaceae (4. v.), distinguished by a bell-shaped corolla with five broad short segments, filaments dilated at the base, a 2-5-cleft stigma, and a top-shaped capsule with 25 cells, opening by lateral clefts below the calyx segments. The species are very numerous, chiefly but not exclusively abounding in the northern parts of the world, and the more elevated districts of the tmperate zones. They are mostly herbaceous, some of them annual. The name BELL-FLOWER is common to many of them, and is often extended to all. The flowers are in general beautiful, and many of the species are therefore frequent ornaments of flower-borders. Of the native British species, the mo-t common, and one of the most beautiful, is the HAREBELL (q. v.) or BLUEBELL (C. Rotundifolia). The CANTERBURY BELL (C. Medium) is a very beautiful annual, which has long been so generally sown in flower-borders in Britain, that it is almost as

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to some species, particularly in affections of the throat, wherefore C. Trachelium, frequent in woods in England, has received the name of Throatwort; but they are now regarded as inert.-The roots of some are reckoned among esculents, as those of the RAMPION (q. v.), (C. Rapunculus), occasionally cultivated in Britain, and much more generally in some parts of continental Europe.

CAMPANULA'CEE, a natural order of exogenous plants, herbaceous or half shrubby, with a bitter milky juice; leaves without stipules, and generally alternate; the calyx usually 5-lobed, its tube adhering to the ovary; the corolla monopetalous, inserted into the top of the calyx, usually 5-lobed and regular; the stamens inserted into the calyx, and alternate with the lobes of the corolla; the fruit with two or more many-seeded cells, crowned with the withered calyx and corolla, and opening by division of the cells (loculicidally); the seeds fixed to the axis, and having fleshy albumen. About 500 species are known, natives chiefly of the temperate and colder climates of the northern hemisphere, where their blue or white flowers are among the finest ornaments of fields and woods. The roots and young leaves of some species are eatable, as is the half-fleshy fruit of Canarina Campanula, a native of the Canary Islands.

CA'MPBELL, the family name of the Lords of Argyle. The origin of the family has not been satisfactorily ascertained. One theory makes it of Anglo-Norman origin; another traces its descent through a long line of Celtic chiefs to King Arthur. It first appears in record towards the end of the 13th c., when it held lands in Ayrshire and Argyle. The chiefs of the family having taken a prominent part in public affairs, the most distinguished are noticed under the head ARGyle.

CAMPBELL, SIR COLIN, LORD CLYDE, one of the bravest soldiers and most distinguished generals of modern times, was born in Glasgow, in 1792. His father was a cabinet-maker, named John Macliver, but Colin assumed the name of Campbell, to gratify an uncle on the mother's side. He entered the army as an ensign in 1808; fought through the war in the Spanish peninsula

CAMPBELL.

with distinction, and took part in the expedition to the United States in 1814. In 1842, he attained the rank of colonel, and in the same year he was present at the attack on Chusan, in China, and for his services there received honourable mention in the Gazette. He next served in the Punjab, commanding the left at the battle of Chillianwallah. For his conduct in this battle, Lord Gough | awarded him the highest praise in his dispatch to the governor-general of India. He next commanded in the Peshawur district with uniform success against the hill-tribes. On the breaking out of the Crimean war in 1854, he was appointed to the command of the Highland Brigade, and took a prominent part at the battle of the Alma; and afterwards at Balaklava, where, with the 93d Highlanders, which he did not even form into square, he beat back the Russian cavalry, who were swooping down on the port, with its accumulation of shipping and stores. His services in this war were rewarded with promotion to the rank of major-general, and he was also created a Knight | Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, and received the Cross of the French Legion of Honour. He was appointed Inspector-general of Infantry, and in 1857, commander of the forces in India, then engaged in quelling the Indian mutiny, which by his energy and judgment was soon utterly subdued. One of the most notable characteristics of C.'s generalship, is the care he takes of the lives of his men, all his victories being won with the minimum expenditure of the blood of his soldiers. For his exploits in India, C., in 1858, was created a peer of the realm, with the title of Baron Clyde, and appointed a general, the East India Company granting him an annuity of £2000. C. arrived in Britain from India in July 1860. He died in 1863. CAMPBELL, George, D. D., an eminent theological writer, was born at Aberdeen in 1719. He was educated for the law, but abandoned that profession for the study of divinity. In 1746, he was ordained minister of Banchory Ternan, a parish lying some miles south-west of Aberdeen; and in 1759, he was appointed Principal of Marischal College. His first work was his famous Treatise on Miracles, in answer to Hume. The dispute concerning miracles has assumed a new form in the present century, and C.'s arguments would not meet all the objections which the modern school of rationalists urge; but the work in its own day was greatly admired, and characterised as one of the most acute and convincing treatises that has ever appeared on the subject.' It was speedily translated into French, Dutch, and German. In 1771, C. was elected Professor of Divinity in Marischal College. In 1776, he published his Philosophy of Rhetoric, which is still a standard work on the subject. His last work was a Translation of the Gospels, with Preliminary Dissertations and Notes. He died April 6, 1796. After his death appeared his Lectures on Ecclesiastical History.

CAMPBELL, JOHN (CAMPBELL), LORD, High Chancellor of England, son of a minister of Cupar, in the county of Fife, Scotland, was born in 1779. He was at first destined to follow his father's profession, and was sent, while still a mere boy, to the neighbouring university of St. Andrews. C. himself had no inclination for a clerical life, ar.d when he had completed his studies in the Faculty of Arts, he left for London, being then about 19 years of age. He obtained employment on the staff of the Morning Chronicle, where, in due time, he was intrusted with the care of the theatrical criticism and the reports in the House of Commons. He was called to the bar in 1806. His

sound sense, and unpretending activity and devo-
tion to business were awarded with an extensive
common-law practice, and, after a time, with profes-
sional promotion. The silk gown of a king's counsel
was conferred upon him in 1827. Three years after-
wards, he entered Parliament, actuated, he tells us,
in the preface to one of his works, by a desire to
obtain for England the benefits of a national registry
of titles to land. The effort, at the time, was
unavailing, as the landlords, whom it was destined
more immediately to benefit, completely misunder-
stood the purport of the project. C. was promoted
by the Whig party, to which he had attached him-
self, to the Solicitor-generalship in 1832, and to the
Attorney-generalship in 1834.
In the same year,
he was chosen the representative in parliament for
Edinburgh. He continued to represent Edinburgh
down to 1841, and remained in the office of Attorney-
general during that period, with the exception of
the short time in 1835, when the Conservatives were
in power. In 1841, he was made Chancellor of
Ireland and a peer of the United Kingdom ; but held
the office of Chancellor for only a few months, when
the Melbourne cabinet left office, necessitating C.
also to resign. For the first time since boyhood,
he found himself without regular daily labour, and
at the mature age of 60, set to work to win the
literary fame which he professes always to have
secretly coveted. His first publication was a collec-
tion of his speeches at the bar and in the House
of Commons. For three or four years after the
publication of his speeches, C. was engaged in the
preparation of the Lives of the Chancellors, the first
series of which appeared in 1845. In 1846, he joined
the Russel cabinet in the capacity of Chancellor of
the Duchy of Lancaster. His ministerial duties
were not sufficiently arduous to interrupt his
Lives of the Chancellors, and to publish a supple-
literary labours, and he proceeded to complete the
mental series of Lives of the Chief-justices of Eng-
land. Both works have enjoyed great popularity,

but leave no doubt that the author was more fitted

for a practical lawyer than for a man of letters. C. returned to more congenial labours in 1850; he was then appointed to succeed Denman as Chief-justice. He held the office for nine years, at the end of which he received the highest honour that can be obtained by a member of the legal profession—the Chancellorship of England. He died June 1861.

CAMPBELL, THOMAS, a distinguished English poet, was born in the city of Glasgow, 27th July 1777. His father was a merchant, and the poet was the youngest of ten children. He was sent to the university of his native city, and remained there six years. During his collegiate course, he received several prizes, and was particularly distinguished for his knowledge of Greek literature. On leaving the university, C. went to reside as a tutor for a year in the island of Mull. The scenery of the West Highlands made a deep impression on his mind, and to his abode in these grand and desolate regions we are indebted for many of the touches of sublimity which occur in his verses. Returning from Argyleshire, C. meditated the study of law, and repaired to Edinburgh; but he could not shake off his recollections. In his eyes, the mists were folded on the hills of Morven, the roar of Corrievrekin was in his ears, and instead of prosecuting the study of jurisprudence, he wrote The Pleasures of Hope. The poem was published in 1799, and went through four editions in a twelvemonth. After its publication C. went to the continent; and on December 3, 1800, witnessed from a Bavarian monastery the battle of Hohenlinden, fought between the French and Austrians. In 1801, he returned to England, with The Exile of

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