CARTOUCH-CARTWRIGHT.

higher.

from the originals. The subjects of these are- which have since passed, it has often been much 1. The Adoration of the Kings; 2. Christ appearing to Mary Magdalene; 3. The Disciples at Emmaus; 4. The Murder of the Innocents; 5. The Ascension. These were engraved, along with the others, by Somereau, a French engraver, in 4to. Other car toons of Raphael exist-one the property of the Duke of Buccleuch, and two in the possession of the king of Sardinia, which are said to have belonged to the set sent to Flanders. There is also a portion of one in the National Gallery in London, but it is now painted over with oil colour. The best engravings of the cartoons at Hampton Court are by Dorigny, Audran, and Holloway; but in future it is probable that they will be more known to the public by means of photographs, of which Messrs. Colnaghi and others have already produced very beautiful specimens.

CARTOUCH is a word much used in the French military service, but less frequently in the English. The name was once given to a wooden case containing 200 to 300 musket-bullets, and 8 or 10 1-lb balls, fired from a mortar or howitzer in defence. of a ditch or intrenchment; but such missiles have been superseded by others. The cartridge-box carried by the soldiers used to be called a C. in England, and still is in France.

CARTOUCHE, the name by which the French, and we after them, designate the ovals on which the hieroglyphic characters for the names of Egyptian kings are sculptured. See CAVO-RILIEVO. C. is also used to signify a tablet, either for ornament or to receive an inscription, so formed as to resemble a sheet of paper or parchment, with the edges and ends rolled up. Cartouches are often seen on tombs, The same term is sometimes applied to modillions, or brackets supporting a cornice.

CA'RTRIDGE is a cylindrical case made to contain either the whole or part of the materials for discharging from a firearm. Those for ordnance or large guns are chiefly made of serge and flannel, sewn up in the form of a bag, which, supplied with a given weight of powder, is tied round the neck, and strengthened by iron hcops. The weight varies from about 20 lbs. for a 68-pounder, to 6 oz. for a 1-pounder.

Cartridges for small-arms are usually paper tubes containing a leaden ball and a few drachms of powder, The C. paper employed is strong and hard. It is made into a tube by means of a mandrel or former, and thinner paper is also applied at certain parts, in such a way that the powder has two or three thicknesses of paper around it, while the bullet has only one. At Woolwich, a beautiful machine is employed to make the tubes or cases from the pulp itself, instead of from sheets of paper. The paper over the bullet is lubricated with some composition, and a bit of the paper is required to be bitten or twisted off before loading. This apparently trifling matter had something to do with the revolt in India in 1857; for the sepoys professed a horror at the contamination of their lips with (possible) beef or pig fat in the lubricating composition. Blank-cartridges contain powder only; while ball-cartridges contain a bullet as well as powder. For distinction and safety, musket-cartridges are often in white paper, rifle in green, and blank in purple; and each sort is wrapped up in paper of the same colour.

In reference to army purposes, and to all the various kinds of small-arms employed, the balls used vary from 7 to 34 to the pound, with from 2 to 10 drachms of powder. The number of cartridges kept in store is almost incredibly large. In 1849, it amounted to 80,000,000; and in the busy years

The chief cartridges used for shot guns and sporting purposes, are the common wire cartridges, and the various breech-loading cartridges. The wire cartridges contain only shot packed in a case, the interstices being filled with bone-dust. They are of three kinds: the first (Universal C.) having a plain paper-covering; the second (Royal C.) is, in addition, surrounded by a light wire net-work; and the third (Green C.) has a stronger wire net-work around it. The object of these cartridges (especially the Green C., which is propelled furthest) is further shooting and harder hitting than can be attained by loose shot. They are made of various bores and sizes, and containing various quantities, to suit all guns. The breech-loader C. is a stout cylindrical paper-case, some three inches in length. In the annexed longitudinal section of one of the

many kinds of cartridge adapted for breech-loaders,
a is a brass pin which is forced by being struck by
the hammer of the gun into the percussion-cap b,
causing the explosion of the gunpowder in d, and
which closes up the end of the cartridge.
the propulsion of the shot e. c is a brass capsule

CARTRIDGE-PAPER is a light-coloured strong paper, originally manufactured for soldiers' cartridges (q. v.), is extensively used in art, its rough It is of three kinds-common C., engineers' C., and surface being useful for certain kinds of drawing. double engineers' cartridge-paper. The more common kind is also used as a wrapping-paper.

CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND, celebrated on account of his invention of the power-loom, was born April 24, 1743, at Marnham, Nottinghamshire. Educated at Oxford, he obtained a living in the English Church, and devoted himself exclusively to his ministerial duties and to literature, until a casual conversation, in 1784, directed his attention to machinery, and in 1785 he exhibited his first power-loom (q. v.) in action, an ingenious though very rude machine; upon which, however, he subsequently effected improvements rendering it almost perfect. Its introduction was vehemently opposed, and a mill fitted up with 500 of his looms was ignorantly and maliciously burned down. C., in 1790, took out a patent for combing wool, and secured patents for various other improvements in connection with manufactures. But his patents yielded him little return, and in 1809, government, in consideration of his inventions, granted him £10,000. C. was the author of a legendary poem, entitled Arminia and Elvira, and other poetical pieces. He died October 1823.— CARTWRIGHT, JOHN (born 1740; died 1824), known as Major Cartwright, and distinguished for his efforts to obtain parliamentary reform during the reign of George III., was elder brother of the above.

CARTWRIGHT, THOMAS, a distinguished puritan divine of the 16th c., was born in Hertfordshire about 1535. He studied at Cambridge, where, in 1570, he was chosen Margaret Divinity professor. His lectures here were too honestly critical of

CARUS-CARYATIDES.

the polity of the church to be acceptable to the chief authorities, who deprived him of his professorship, and subsequently of his fellowship. C. now travelled on the continent, and made the friendship of such men as Beza, who, in a letter concerning him, says, I think the sun doth not see a more learned man.' On the continent he officiated as minister at Antwerp, and afterwards at Middleburg, to the English residents at these places. On his return to England, he again became embroiled with the church and the government, and for his nonconformity suffered imprisonment several times. He was finally released in 1592, and permitted to preach; but the harassing persecutions, and the confinement to which he had been exposed, had permanently injured his health. His Admonition to the Parliament involved him in a controversy with Whitgift, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. See Works of Whitgift, edited by the Parker Society. He died December 1603. He wrote A Confutation of the Rhemish Translation, Glosses, and Annotations on the New Testament; a work which, it is said, Queen Elizabeth wanted Beza to undertake, but he declined on the ground that C. was more capable for the task.

CARUS, KARL GUST., a German scholar, physiologist, physician, and artist, was born at Leipsic 3d January, 1789. He first attracted notice by a series of lectures on comparative anatomy, delivered in his native city about the year 1812. After having superintended, during the war of 1813, the French hospital at Pfaffendorf, he went to Dresden, where he was appointed professor of midwifery in the newly organised medico-chirurgical academy; but resigned his office when elected court-physician and councillor of state. In 1827, he accompanied the Prince of Saxony on his travels through Italy and Switzerland, and on his return, gave his attention seriously to painting, cultivating the art with no His house is the rendezvous of all the most distinguished savans and artists in Dresden. C. has written a vast variety of works, all of which indicate great talent, and some of which are even marked by original and striking views, as, for instance, Uber den Kreislauf des Blutes der Insecten, in which he demonstrates the circulation of the blood in insects.

little success.

CA'RVEL-BUILT. The difference between the carvel and the clincher methods of arranging the outer planks in ship and boat building is explained under CLINCHER-BUILT.

CARVING, a subordinate branch of sculpture, is usually performed on ivory or wood. Ivory was the favourite material for this purpose in the east from an early period. Among the Babylonians, who likewise practised gem-engraving to a great extent, carved heads for staves were executed in vast quantities, as every Babylonian carried a staff and a signet-ring. During the palmy days of Grecian art, ivory was largely employed; the nude portion of the colossal statues of the gods being composed of some solid material overlaid with plates of ivory, while the remaining portions were of plate gold. At a later period, ivory was chiefly employed in small works, usually of a decorative character. During the earliest period, statues of the gods were generally of wood, painted, gilt, or draped with coloured robes, different kinds of wood being appropriated to different divinities. Carvings in ivory form an important branch of early Christian sculpture. Among the most curious of these are the ivory tablets adorned on the outside with low-reliefs, and in the inside coated with wax for the purpose of writing upon. The chair inlaid with ivory, that belonged to Archbishop Maximilian in the cathedral

at Ravenna, is of this period (546-555). In the
year 803, Charlemagne received two richly carved
doors as a present from Constantinople, but works
of the same kind were executed at a much earlier
period. Towards the end of the middle ages, the
art of carving in wood was brought to a high degree
of perfection in Germany. Altars were adorned
with carvings of this material, often of large size,
and with numerous figures; in general, the nude
portions were carefully and tastefully coloured after
nature, and the draperies gilt. Specimens are to be
seen in the churches at Altenberg, Erfurt, Prague,
The finest
and in some churches in Pomerania.
and most perfect specimens are a series of reliefs
relating to the doctrine of transubstantiation in
the church at Tribsees. Many of the Belgian
churches also possess very beautiful examples of
wood-carving. Michael Wohlgemuth of Nuremberg,
and after him Veit Stoss, were eminent carvers in
wood. The wood-carving on the great altar of the
cathedral at Schleswig by Hans Bruggemann belongs
to the beginning of the 16th century. Many grace-
ful specimens of wood-carving, on a smaller scale,
belonging to this period, are to be seen in museums.
Nuremberg was celebrated for its wood-carvings;
but only a few of the many works ascribed to him
can be assigned with certainty to Albert Dürer.
Portrait medallions, usually cut in box, were much
in vogue during the early part of the 16th century.
The first artist in this line was Hans Schwartz of
Augsburg. During the 17th and 18th centuries, we
find ivory again extensively employed in crucifixes,
crosses, and goblets, with relief representations.
The most eminent artist is Franz de Quesnoy.

CARY, REV. HENRY FRANCIS, known for his admirable translation of Dante, was born at Birmingham in 1772. At Oxford, where he entered Christ Church as a commoner in 1790, he was early distinguished as a classical scholar, and also for his knowledge of Italian, French, and English literature. In 1805 he translated Dante's Inferno, and in 1814 the whole of the Divina Commedia, a translation remarkable not only for its accuracy, but for its expressiveness and force. He afterwards translated Pindar's Odes and Aristophanes's Birds, and wrote a series of memoirs, in continuation of Dr. Johnson's Lives of the Poets. For some years he held the appointment of assistant-librarian in the British Museum, and died in 1844. A memoir by his son

was published in 1847.

CARY, SIR ROBERT, son of Henry Cary, Lord Hunsdon, was born in 1559 or 1560, and rose to eminence in the civil service of Queen Elizabeth. For a number of years, he acted as English warden on the marches. As a courtier, he was present at the death of Elizabeth, 1603, and expeditiously rode on horseback to Edinburgh to communicate the intelligence to her successor, James VI. At the coronation of Charles I., he was elevated to the peerage as Earl of Monmouth. At his death without Cary wrote his Memoirs (Edin. 1808), a work interesting chiefly from notices connected with Border history.

male issue the earldom became extinct. Sir Robert

CA'RYA. See HICKORY.

CARYA'TIDES (pl. of Caryatis, literally, a woman of Caryæ), a name given to female figures, in Greek architecture, when applied instead of columns to support a roof. The traditional account of the origin of the name is, that the inhabitants of Caryæ, a city in Arcadia, having joined the Persians after the battle of Thermopylæ, the Greeks, after their victory over the Persians, destroyed the town, slew the men, and carried the women into captivity. As male figures representing Persians were used

CARYOCAR-CASANOVA.

Caryatæ, in their national cos-
tume, might be thus employed
to commemorate the disgrace of
their country. Lessing, and vari-
ous other writers, have treated
this account as fabulous; but it
seems to be confirmed by a bas-
relief preserved at Naples, in
which two female figures are
represented in the attitude of C.,
and which has a Greek inscrip-
tion mentioning the conquest of
Caryæ. Male figures used for
the same purpose are called
Atlantes (q. v.).

for this purpose, it occurred to Praxiteles, and other, sensation when its pulp is applied to the skin, is Athenian artists, that female also highly valuable for the great quantity of juice (toddy) which flows from its wounded spathes, sometimes, in the hot season, to the amount of 100 pints in twenty-four hours from a single tree. Sugar (jaggery) is made from this juice by boiling it down. and on this account this palm is sometimes called the Jaggery palm. The pith of old trees, or farinaceous part of the trunk, is also much used for food, and is said to be equal to the best sago. The outer part of the stem is very hard, and applicable to many purposes. many purposes. The fibres of the leaf-stalks are made into ropes, which are very strong and durable; the leaf-stalks, merely stripped of the leaflets, are used as fishing-rods, being light, tapering, and elastic; and the woolly substance found at their base is sometimes used for calking ships. This palm is found both in India and Ceylon, and abounds chiefly in mountainous districts. It rises to a height of 60 feet, with a trunk of a foot in diameter, and a magnificent spreading head of great double pinnate leaves, and triangular leaflets, the apex of the triangle being their point of attachment.

genus

CARYO'CAR, a of large trees of the natural order Rhizobolacea, and almost constituting the whole order. They are all natives of Guiana and Brazil, and are sometimes called Pekea trees. They yield good timber for ship-building, and produce the delicious nuts, now not uncommon in the London market, called Butter nuts or Souari nuts. The fruit is a sort of drupe, containing several combined nuts. The fleshy part of the drupe consists of a butter-like substance, which melts between the fingers, and is used in cookery instead of butter,

Caryatis :

on which account these trees are sometimes called

butter-trees. It forms merely a thin covering for the nuts, the bristles on the outer surface of which, in some of the species, sting like the hairs of the nettle, and are very troublesome to those who open them. The kernels are remarkably soft. An oil is extracted from them which is scarcely inferior to olive oil. C. nuciferum is now cultivated in the island of Saint Vincent; but C. butyrosum, C. glabrum, C. tomentosum, and other species appear equally worthy of attention.

CARYOPHYLLA CEE, a natural order of exogenous plants, containing upwards of 1000 known species, mostly herbaceous plants, a few half shrubby. The stems are tumid at the articulations; the leaves always opposite and entire, often uniting around the stem. The flowers are regular; the calyx persistent, of 4-5 sepals, either free or united into a tube; the corolla of 4-5 petals, which are frequently bifid, and generally terminate in a claw at the base, sometimes wanting; the stamens as many, or twice as many, as the petals; the ovary of 2-5 carpels; the stigmas sessile; the fruit is a one-celled capsule, with central placenta, to which the seeds are attached.—The plants of this order are mostly natives of temperate and cold countries; some of them are only found on tropical mountains, near the limits of perpetual snow. Most of them are inconspicuous weeds; some produce beautiful flowers; almost all are insipid and inert; a few contain saponine, and afford a substitute for soap. See Soapwort. To this order belong the Pink, Carnation, Sweet William, Lychnis, Chickweed, Cockle, Spurry, &c.

CARYO'PSIS, in Botany, a fruit in which the seed and pericarp are so incorporated as to be inseparable, and even undistinguishable. The grain or fruit of grasses, as Wheat, Barley, Rye, Maize, &c., is a caryopsis.

CARYO'TA, a genus of palms, natives of the East Indies, one of which, C. urens, remarkable for the acridity of its fruit, which produces a burning

CASACALE'NDA, a town of Naples, in the province of Molise, 17 miles north-east of Campobasso, on the site of the ancient Calela. Fruits and wine of good quality are produced in the district, where silk-worms are also reared. Pop. 5900.

CASA'LÉ, a city of the Sardinian States, situated on the right bank of the Po, which is here crossed by an iron bridge, 38 miles east-north-east of Turin. the site of a more ancient town. Many Roman It is a place of considerable antiquity, and occupies remains are found, and coins of the early ages of the republic. It has a cathedral, dating from the 8th c., with valuable archives. The old citadel, founded in 1590, was one of the strongest in Italy, and within recent years the fortifications have been greatly campaign of 1859, C. was occupied by divisions of strengthened and extended. During the Italian the Sardinian army, and for a short time formed the head-quarters of the French emperor. It has manufactures of silk-twist, and a trade in the produce of the district, which is very fertile. Pop. 21,000. C. gives its name to a province which has an area of about 350 square miles, and a population (1857) of 136,965.

CASA'L-MAGGIO'RÉ, a town of Lombardy, Northern Italy, on the left bank of the Po, 22 miles east-south-east of Cremona. Being subject to frequent inundations from the river, strong embankments have been constructed for its protection. It has manufactures of earthenware, leather, glass, &c. Pop. 5000.

CASA'L-PUSTERLE'NGO, a town of Lombardy, North Italy, 12 miles south-east of Lodi, on the road to Cremona. It has manufactures of silk fabrics, linen, and earthenware, and an extensive trade in Parmesan cheese, which is here manufactured of the best quality. Pop. 5600.

CASAMA'SSIMA, a town of Naples, in the province of Bari, 14 miles south-east of the city of that name. It has a convent and two abbeys, and the vicinity produces wine and almonds. Pop. 5600.

CASANOVA, FRANCIS, a celebrated painter of battles and landscapes, was born in London, of Venetian parents, 1732. Educated in Italy, he afterwards went to Paris, from which he was driven by the severe criticism of Diderot. C. then took up his abode in Dresden, where he painted chiefly battle-pieces, and by one of his greatest works gained a place in the Academy. He afterwards went to Vienna, and painted for the Empress Catharine her victory over the Turks. He died at

CASANOVA-CASE.

Briel, near Vienna, 1805. The execution, and espe- | degree of M. A. in 1621. He was appointed rector cially the colouring of his works, are excellent.

CASE-HARDENING-CASEMENT.

feet high, and the compositor stands in front of them. The different sizes of the boxes in the lower case depend upon the comparative frequency in which the several letters occur in composition, and the position in the case allotted to each letter is such as to afford the greatest facility in composing. The letter e, which is most run upon in the English language, has a box much larger than any of the other compartments, and is placed directly in front of the compositor. In the upper case, the boxes are of uniform size, and the letters are placed in alphabetical order, the comparatively rare occurrence of capitals rendering it immaterial which letter is nearest the compositor's hand. A case will hold a quantity of 'letter' more than sufficient to hold a quantity of 'letter' more than sufficient to 'set up' two pages of this work, which is equal to 15,000 types.

CASE-HARDENING is the process of forming a coating of steel on the surface of keys, gun-locks, candle-snuffers, tools, &c. The articles are first finished, or nearly so, in common bar or fibrous iron, and being heated to redness, are sprinkled with a little powdered yellow prussiate of potash, and heated again. The result is, that the heat decomposes the prussiate of potash, and the liberated carbon combines with the iron, forming a coating of steel on the surface of the articles. Another mode of C. is to surround the articles with a layer of some animal matter, such as the powder obtained from charred hoofs, horns, bones, or skin, along with a little common salt, and heat them, enclosed in a shut iron case, to redness, retaining them at that temperature for half an hour; the articles are then taken out, and cooled in cold water, or in oil, when they are of a delicate nature. Large articles necessarily require to be heated for several hours. The coating of steel is very thin, seldom exceeding ath of an inch. Where it is wanted to be thicker, the articles are treated several times. The steely covering makes the articles more durable, and also admits of a better polish; and the process is resorted to with that object in the case of the betterclass of firearms, bright steel grates, &c. It is even applied to rails for railways.

1

CA'SEINE, or CASEUM, is an organic compound allied to albumen (q. v.), found in the milk of the mammalia, and in peas, beans, and other leguminous seeds, when it receives the name of LEGUMIN The proportion of C. in milk (q. v.), varies, but averages about 3 per cent., and it may be coagu lated and separated therefrom by the addition of a little rennet (q. v.), as in the manufacture of cheese (q. v.), or by the employment of a few drops of a mineral acid, such as dilute sulphuric acid. In either case, the C. separates as curd, which still retains attached to it some oil and earthy salts, though the greater portion of these substances, along with the sugar, remain in the watery liquid or whey. The elementary bodies which enter into the composition of C., and the proportion in which these are present in 100 parts are-carbon, 53·83; hydrogen, 7.15; nitrogen, 15.65; oxygen, 22.52; and sulphur, 0.85. The properties of C. are, that it is not coagulated by heat, as is well evidenced in the heating of milk, but is coagulated on the addition of rennet; sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acids; alcohol, creasote, or infusion of galls, but only by acetic acid. It also forms insoluble precipitates with solutions of the poisonous salts, acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), and hence the efficacy of taking large doses of milk in cases of poisoning by those deadly salts, as the C. in the milk, forming an insoluble compound with the poison, keeps it from exerting its deadly powers.

The form of C. obtained from plants, and termed legumin, is generally procured from leguminous seeds, like peas or beans, though it can also be extracted from the majority of vegetable substances, especially from sweet and bitter almonds, and even from tea and coffee. Dried peas contain a fourth of their weight of legumin, and this can be extracted by bruising the peas to powder, and digesting in warm water for two or three hours. The liquid is then strained through cloth, which retains the insolu ble matters, and allows the water with the legumin dissolved therein, and with starch mechanically susfalls to the bottom of the vessel, and the clear liquid pended, to pass through. On settling, the starch small amount of acetic acid, yields a precipitate of holding the legumin in solution, on the addition of a legumin or vegetable caseine. So perfectly does the vegetable C. resemble the C. from milk, that the one can hardly be distinguished from the other by chemical tests or by taste; and at the present time there is regularly prepared in various parts of China, especially near Canton, a form of Cheese from peas, which is sold to the populace in the streets of Canton under the name of Taofoo. C. is a most important article of food. See NUTRITION.

CA'SEMATE, originally a loopholed gallery excavated in a bastion, from which the garrison obtained possession of the ditch, without risk of could do execution upon an enemy who had loss to themselves. Hence the designation, from from shells became more important, the term was Span. casa, house, and matar, to kill. As defence from shells became more important, the term was subsequently applied to a bomb-proof vault in a fortress, for the security of the defenders, without direct reference to the annoyance of the enemy. casemated battery consists of such a vault or vaults, for barracks, or for an hospital, or for a store-house. with openings for the guns. A C. may also serve The great want of ventilation in casemates renders them bad places for barracks; and the artillerymen are nearly stifled with smoke when firing from such confined places.

A

CA'SEMENT (It. casamento, a large house), a frame with hinges to open and shut, enclosing part