CAST-CASTAÑOS. front of the neck. On the breast is a callous bare part, on which the bird rests its body on the ground. The bony crest or helmet reaches from the base of the bill to the middle of the crown, and is about three inches high, exhibiting the most intense blue, purple, and scarlet blended together. The C. lays a few eggs, which it leaves to be hatched by the heat of the sun; and which are greenish, and have a much thinner shell than those of the ostrich. Its flesh is black, tough, and juiceless. The C. is not unfrequently to be seen in menageries in Europe, but is becoming more rare in its native regions, in which it is sometimes kept tame. when fashioned into castings. This silvery iron is a source of great annoyance to manufacturers of iron, and, at the present time (1860), little is known regarding the cause of its production, and as little in reference to any means of preventing its formation. CAST STEEL is employed for edge-tools, planeirons, and other cutting instruments. It is generally prepared from Blistered Steel (q. v.). The latter is cut up into small pieces, and placed in crucibles, and covered with broken glass or some slag. These crucibles are about two feet high, and are made of very refractory clay, intermingled with a small CAST, an impression produced by pouring a duc-proportion of coke. Being exposed to a high heat tile substance, such as plaster of Paris, into a mould. This method was employed by the ancients in multiplying not only objects of art, such as the small household statues of the gods, but articles of direct utility. The so-called Celts, or chisels of bronze, which, with the moulds for casting them, are found in England, Ireland, and France, testify to the fact, that the art of casting from a mould is one of the earliest acquired by semi-civilised nations. Casts are of incalculable value in familiarising the eyes of those who can never look on the originals with the grand and beautiful forms of antique art. The best to be had in this country are those executed, and sold on application, at the British Museum. Casting, when applied to metals, is called Founding (q. v.). CAST, CASTING-LINE. The casting-line, in Angling, is a gut-line on which the artificial flies are fastened. It is made up of several lengths of gut, knotted together, and usually from two to four yards long. The flies are attached at intervals of about two feet, and the line with its flies is called a cast. The term cast is also applied to a part of a stream where certain fish may be taken, as a trout-cast, a salmon-cast. in a furnace for three or four hours, the steel is CASTA'LIA, a fountain on the slope of Parnassus, a little above Delphi, in Phocis, sacred to Apollo and the Muses. It was the 'holy water' of the Delphian temple; and all who came to consult the oracle, or visited the place with any religious purpose whatever, were wont to bathe their hair rore puro Castaliæ (in the pure dew of C.), but those who wished to The Roman poets feigned that its waters filled the be purified from murder, bathed their whole body. mind of those who drank of it with poetic inspiration. It was imagined to have some connection with the river Cephisus, and to flow from the subterranean Styx. The fountain, whose waters are still pure and delightful as in the days of classical antiquity, now bears the name of St. John, from a small chapel of that name close by. CA'STANETS, a musical instrument of percussion in the form of two hollow nut-shells, which are bound together by a band fastened on the thumb, and struck by the fingers to produce a trilling sound in keeping with the rhythm of the music. The krotalon of the ancients was somewhat similar. The C. were introduced into Spain by the Moors, where they retain the name of castanulas, from their resemblance to the form of the chestnut. The C. are now much used in the ballet and in the opera. CAST IRON is the variety of Iron (q. v.) obtained from the Blast-furnace (q. v.). It is run while hot from the furnace into a series of small canals in sand, and the iron cooling and solidifying there, is ultimately broken up into pigs of C. I. about four feet long, and three to four inches in diameter. There are several varieties of C. I., which are well known in the arts. These varieties contain different proportions of carbon united with the iron, ranging from 5 down to 2 per cent. ; and the greater the amount of carbon, the more easily fused is the iron, and consequently the more suitable for. foundry purposes. No. 1 pig is the best, contains most carbon, fuses most readily, and is employed for small castings; No. 2 is second-rate, has less carbon, takes a higher heat to melt it, and is generally used for large pieces of machinery; No. 3 is third-rate, has less carbon than No. 2, a higher melting-point, and is retained for heavy machinery requiring great strength and some degree of tough- CASTAÑOS, DON FRANCISCO XAVIER DE, Duke ness to resist sudden pressure or strain; No. 4 is of Baylen, a celebrated Spanish general, was born at fourth-rate, and No. 5 fifth-rate, and these contain Madrid in 1756, and studied in Germany the milistill less carbon, their fusing-point is higher, and tary tactics of Frederick the Great. For some time they are employed in the fabrication of malleable after his return to Spain, he had no opportunity of iron (q. v.). The various kinds of C. I. differ like- acquiring distinction; but when Napoleon I. invaded wise in structure and appearance of surface. Thus, that country, C. received the command of a division No. 1 is large-grained, with the appearance of small of the Spanish army, and on the 22d of July 1808, scales when a fresh surface is exposed, whilst the compelled 20,000 French, under General Dupont, to size of the grains decrease till, in No. 5, the grains surrender at Baylen. It is asserted, however, that or particles are so minute as to communicate a the merit of this prodigious success belonged more whitish granular aspect, so that this is technically to Aloys Reding, a Swiss by birth, and the second called white iron. Besides these numbers, there in command. In November of the same year, C. is a variety of C. I. known to the trade as silvery was in turn defeated by the French at Tudela. iron, which may be obtained in any of the num- The arrival of Wellington necessarily reduced him bers, and which is characterised by a light silvery to a subordinate position, but he took part in appearance, and by great comparative weakness the important battles of Albuera, Salamanca, and CASTE. Vittoria. In 1811, he was appointed general of the 4th Spanish corps d'armée, and commandant of several provinces. In 1815, he was placed at the head of 80,000 troops, destined to invade France, some of which had already crossed the frontier when the news came of the battle of Waterloo. Although no great favourite with the court politicians, his talents could not be overlooked. In 1825 he was called to the state council, where he became a decided opponent of the Carlist party. He died 24th September 1852, at the advanced age of 96. CASTE, a term applied chiefly to distinct classes or sections of society in India, and, in a modified sense, to social distinctions of an exclusive nature among the nations of the West. When, at the end of the 15th c., the Portuguese began to penetrate to India by the Cape of Good Hope, and to trade with the Deccan or southern portion of the Indian peninsula, they found arbitrary social laws, full of intricate regulations which constantly in terfered with their intercourse with the natives, especially in matters involving the subdivision of labour. They found certain pursuits invariably followed by a certain class, and any attempt to induce a man to perform offices not appointed for the class of which he was a member, met with violent opposition, though such offices might, according to European notions, be more honourable than many he was content to fulfil. They observed, also, that these different classes often varied in appearance, the result, in some cases, of their addiction for many generations to the same pursuits; in others, of their having actually arisen from a different stock. Hence they applied to these various divisions of society the term casta-a Portuguese and Spanish word, meaning a breed. As applied to these classes of Hindu society, the word has passed into most European languages. From its frequent use in India, it has sometimes been erroneously considered of Hindu origin.* Of late, it has been spelled caste, but by old authors cast; and it is even a question, whether the word may not be as genuine English, as casta is Spanish. In the south of India, the Portuguese became acquainted with what is considered the most exaggerated evil of caste. There are found there large numbers of a class called Pariahs, or, in other districts of India, Chandalas. They are probably the relics of some early conquered race, who have been degraded by uninterrupted ages of oppression, as is represented to have been the case with the Helots of Sparta, and people in a similar condition. These Pariahs were always identified with outcasts—i. e., persons who had forfeited the privileges of their original order. No one of any C. would have any communication with them. If one of them even touched a Nayr, or warrior of high C., he might with impunity kill him. Some sorts of food were defiled by even their shadow passing over them; and the name of Pariah or Chandala conveyed to the Hindu the idea of the utmost vileness and disgust. All who violated the institutions of their class were held to sink into this class-a condition which involved the loss of all human respectability and comfort. These regulations were, moreover, referred to religion. As India was at this time the land of the marvellous, and its inhabitants, though as various as the different nations of Europe, viewed as one homogeneous people, what was only true of one portion of the peninsula, was considered as prevailing everywhere, and as identical with the divisions * In Sanscrit, castes are called Varnas, i. e., ' colours;' colour being, no doubt, the ch.ef distinction at first. of the Indians into seven tribes or castes, mentioned in olden times by Strabo, by Diodorus Siculus, and by Arrian. Nor was it forgotten that the Egyptians, whose early civilisation was as undoubted as that of India, were also divided, according to Herodotus, into seven classes of priests, warriors, herdsmen, swineherds, tradesmen, interpreters, and pilots, to each of which were assigned particular districts. About the middle of the 16th c., however, Abraham Roger, chaplain of the Dutch factory at Pulicat, gained the confidence of a Brahman, acquainted with the Sanscrit language, and by this means learned pretty exactly the account of the origin of C. given in the Laws of Menu, a work inferred to have been written not later than 900 B. C., which was long known only by name in Europe, until about the end of the last century, when a copy was obtained, and translated by Sir William Jones. The whole of the Hindus aré represented by Menu as divided into four classes: 1. The Brahmans, or sacerdotal class, who are said, at the moment of creation, to have issued from the mouth of Brahma. Their business is reading and teaching the Vedas, and the performance of sacrifice for themselves and others. They are to be the chief of all created beings; the rest of mortals enjoy life through them. By their imprecations, they can destroy kings, with all their troops, and elephants, and pomps. Indra, when cursed by one of them, was hurled from his own heaven, and compelled to animate a cat. Hence, the Brahman is to be treated with the most profound respect, even by kings. His life and person are protected by the severest laws in this world, and the most tremendous denunciations for the next. His own offences are treated with singular lenity; all offences against him, with terrible severity. He is forbidden to live by service, but on alms; and it is incumbent upon virtuous men and kings to support him with liberality; and all ceremonies of religion involve feasts and presents to him. The first part of his life is to be devoted to an unremitting study of the Vedas-books, be it observed, older than the code of Menu, and yet, except, perhaps, one of the later hymns, containing no mention of C. as a religious ordinance. He is to perform servile offices for his preceptor, and beg from door to door. In the second quarter, he lives with his wife, reads and teaches the Vedas, assists at sacrifices, and, clean and decent, his hair and beard clipped, his passions subdued, his mantle white, his body pure, with a staff and a copy of the Vedas in his hand, and bright golden rings in his ears,' he leads a studious and decorous life. The third quarter of his life he must spend in the woods, as an anchorite, clad in bark, without fire, wholly silent, and feeding on roots and fruits. The last period he is released from external forms and mortifications, and is to spend his time meditating on the divinity, until at length he quits the body, as a bird leaves the branch of a tree, at pleasure.' 2. The Kshatrya, or Chuttree, or military class, sprang from the arm of Brahma, and bear something of a sacred character. It is stated that the sacerdotal order cannot prosper without the military, or the military without the sacerdotal; and the prosperity of both, as well in this world as in the next, is made to depend on their cordial union. The Kshatrya are to give alms, to sacrifice, to read the Vedas, and defend the people. Though Brahmans are to draw up and interpret laws, they are carefully excluded from administering them. The executive government is vested in the Kshatryas alone. 3. The Vaisya, or Bais, or mercantile class, sprang from the thigh of Brahma. Their grand duties are CASTE-CASTEGGIO. to keep cattle, carry on trade, lend on interest, cultivate the soil, and turn their attention to every description of practical knowledge. They are to be perfect men of business. 4. The Sudras, or Sooders, or servile class, came from the foot of Brahma. They are to serve the three superior classes, more especially the Brahmans. Their condition is never to be improved; they are not to accumulate property, and are unable by any means to approach the dignity of the higher classes. Utter and entire submissiveness to the Brahmans is the spirit of all a Sudra's duties, and this is to be enforced by penalties as severe as they are ridiculous. Yet, withal, the Sudras were not to be slaves, either public or private, and to occupy a position much highar than the Chandalas. Mixture of castes, though not absolutely forbidden, entails disadvantages on the children, and the offspring of a Brahmanical woman and a Sudra becomes a Chandala, or outcast. Such-omitting the minute and childish laws and penalties, many hundreds in number, by which it is proposed to carry the principle of C. into the pettiest affairs of life-is a brief outline of it, as gathered from the code of Menu. There is no historical evidence that it ever existed in this form, and, from the nature of the case, we may conclude that it never did. In the Toy-cart, the oldest Hindu drama, no extravagant veneration for Brahmans anywhere appears. In fact, one of them is condemned to death; and the arrangements of society appear to have been the same as at present. The laws of C. form, it is true, a part of what is reputed to be Hindu law, but they have remained in all the states of India, Hindu as well as Mohammedan, to a great extent a dead-letter. There is nothing to shew that the code of Menu was drawn up for the regulation of any particular state. Some have even conjectured that it may have been the work of some learned man, designed to set forth his idea of a perfect commonwealth under Hindu institutions, just as Plato in The Republic gives us his idea of a model government under Greek institutions. Be this as it may, the C. which at present exists throughout the greater part of India is very different from that described in the code of Menu, though to this it owes, no doubt, much of its stability and its importance in the eyes of Europeans. With the exception of the Brahmans, the pure castes have disappeared, and out of the intermixture of the others have sprung innumerable classes, many of them unauthorized except by the people themselves. So engrained in the whole community is this tendency to class distinctions, that Mussulmans, Jews, Parsees, and Christians fall, in some degree, into it; and even excommunicated or outcast Pariahs form castes among themselves. Most of the existing castes partake of the nature of associations for mutual support or familiar intercourse, and are dependent upon a man's trade, occupation, or profession. Many of them have been described by Mr. Colebrooke in the Asiatic Transactions, vol. 5. Many have had their origin in guilds, in schism from other castes, in the possession of a particular sort of property (as, for instance, landlords are spoken of as the C. of zemindars), and similar accidental circumstances. Their names are often due to the district in which the C. took its rise, to their founder, to their peculiar creed, or any random circumstance. In the Bengal presidency, there are many hundreds of such castes, almost every district containing some unknown in those adjacent. Among the lowest classes, and especially among the servants of the English at Calcutta, it has degenerated into a fastidious tenacity of the rights and privileges of station. For example, | Such the man who sweeps your room will not take an empty cup from your hand; your groom will not mow a little grass; a coolie will carry any load, however offensive, upon his head, but even in a matter of life and death, would refuse to carry a man, for that is the business of another caste. and many other regulations are described in every work on C., but are as unworthy of serious regard as are the assertions of self-importance found among little people all the world over. When an English servant pleads that such a thing is not his place,' his excuse is analogous to that of the Hindu servant when he pleads his caste. When an Englishman of birth or profession, which is held to confer gentility, refuses to associate with a tradesman or mechanic -or when members of a secret order exclude all others from their meetings-or when any other similar social distinction arises, it would present itself to the mind of the Hindu as a regulation of caste. Nor does C., at the present day, tie a man down to follow his father's business, except, perhaps, in the case of the more sacred functions of the Brahmans. For the rest, Brahmans serve as soldiers, and even as cooks. Men of all castes have risen to power, just as in England our statesmen have sprung from every class of society. Nor, again, is loss of C. anything so terrible as has been represented; in most cases, it may be recovered by a frugal repast given to the members of the C.; or the outcast joins another C., among whom he will commonly be received with the heartiness due to a new convert. The question of the restoration of a Christian convert wishing to rejoin the Brahmanical C., has been differently decided by his fellow caste-inen in different places. As in the West, so in the East, C. enters into all the most ordinary relations of life, producing laws often most tyrannical and too anomalous to admit of generalisation. In the West, however, whilst good sense and Christianity have ever tended to ameliorate social differences, the feeble mind of the Hindu and the records of his religion have had a contrary effect. These modified views of C., which have begun to prevail in recent years, will be found more fully developed in Shore On Indian Affairs, Irving's Theory and Practice of Caste. Full accounts of the petty regulations of C., as laid down in the code of Menu, may be seen in Sir William Jones's Translation of the Code of Menu, Robertson's Disquisition on India, Richard's India, Elphinstone's History of India, Dubois's India, Colebrooke's Asiatic Transactions, vol. v., and in various articles in the Calcutta Review. An important work on The Mythical and Legendary Accounts of Caste, was published, Lond. 1858, being part I. of Original Sanscrit Texts on the Origin and Progress of the Religion and Institutions of India; collected, trans lated into English, and Illustrated by Notes. Chiefly for the Use of Students and others in India. By John Muir, D.C.L. The question how C. is to be dealt with in converts to Christianity, has now been determined by common consent of missionaries in India; and it receives no recognition within the Christian church. An opposite policy, in former times, founded on the opinion that C. might be regarded as merely a civil or social institution, and not as a part of the religion of the Hindus, is now believed to have been among the principal causes of the comparative decay of the churches or congregations founded during the 18th c. in the south of India. CASTE'GGIO, a town of Piedmont, Northern Italy, five miles east-north-east of Voghera. In the campaign of 1859, C. was occupied by Austrians CASTEL-CASTELLIO. prior to the battle of Montebello, in which they were defeated by the French and Sardinians. C. was also valorously but unsuccessfully defended by the Austrians in the great battle of Montebello between them and the army of Napoleon I. in 1800. As Clastidium, C. was an important military position as early as the times of the Gallic and Punic wars. Some Roman antiquities still remain, and numerous curious inscriptions and coins have been found. Pop. 2900. CASTE'L (from the Latin castellum) is a name prefixed to various places in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, &c., of which the most important are 1. C.-ARQUATO, a town of Parma, North Italy, 19 miles south-east of Piacenza, picturesquely situated amid forests and vineyards, with a fine Gothic church and a noble old castle, from which the town derives its name. It has manufactures of silk, and a population of 4400. 2. C.-BOLOGNESE, a town of Central Italy, about 22 miles west-south-west from Ravenna. It derives its name from a strong fortress built here by the Bolognese in the 14th c.; and is historically famous as the scene of a decisive battle between the Milanese and Florentines in 1434, in which the latter were completely vanquished. 3. C.-BUoxo, a town of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, eight miles south-east of Cefalu. It is noted for its mineral springs, and has a trade in manna. Pop. 7000. 4. C.-FRANCO, a town of Central Italy, eight miles east of Modena, with the old walls and ramparts of a castle built by Urban VIII., and near the site of the battle between the consuls Hirtius and Pansa and Mark Antony.—Also the name of a town of Venice about 25 miles north-west from the city of that name, with linen and woollen manufactures, and a population of 6500. 5. C.-GANDOLFO, a village of the Papal States, 11 miles south-east of Rome, and near the west shore of Lake Albano. Its situation is extremely pic turesque, and it commands extensive views of some of the most beautiful scenery in Italy. The pope has his summer residence here. In early times, the noble family of the Savelli had a stronghold at C., by means of which, for a period of nearly 400 years, they bade defiance to popes, barons, and bourgeoisie. 6. C.-SARDO (formerly C. Aragonese), a fortified town and seaport, the strongest on the island of Sardinia, is situated on a steep rock on the north coast, 16 miles north-east of Sassari. The environs produce wine. Pop. 2000. 7. C.-SARRASIN, a town of France, in the department of Tarn et Garonne, on the Songuine, 12 miles west from Montauban. It has the remains of an old castle said to be of Saracenic origin, a population of about 5000, manufactures of serge and worsted stockings, and a trade in the agricultural produce of the district. Monte d'Auro, and along a sheltered beach on the south-east side of the Gulf of Naples, over which it commands a magnificent view. It is on or near the site of the ancient Stabiæ, which was desolated by Sylla during the Social War, and where the elder Pliny afterwards lost his life when the city was overwhelmed with lava from Vesuvius. Some ancient remains have been found here. The town was sacked in the 15th c. by Pope Pius II., and again in the 17th c. by the Duc de Guise. It has a which that founded by Gonsalvo de Cordova, in royal palace, a cathedral, several convents, among the 16th c., is famous for the possession of an image of the Madonna, found in a well in the 11th C, which is greatly venerated by the peasantry, The old castle, which gave name to the town, was who make an annual pilgrimage to the church. built in the 12th century. built in the 12th century. C. has a royal dockyard, affording employment to many of the inhabitants, and manufactures of linen, silk, cotton, leather, and sail-cloth. Pop. 18,000. CASTELLAMARE is also the name of a town in Sicily, situated at the head of a gulf of the same name, and 20 miles east from Trapani. It has a population of 8000, and exports of cotton, wine, fruit, and manna.-C., GULF OF, is an extensive bay on the north coast of Sicily. Its width from east to west, between Point Uomo Morto and Cape St. Vito, is about 15 miles and its depth about 14 miles. It has deep water and good anchorage, but is much exposed to north winds. ; CASTELLAMO'NTÉ, a town of the Sardinian States, 10 miles south-west of Ivrea. It has an old castle, manufactures of earthenware, and a trade in the agricultural produce of the district. Pop. 5200. CA'STELLAN, or CHÂTELAIN, the keeper of the rank of the C. were various in various countries. a castle or burg in the middle ages. The office and In France and Flanders, the title C. belonged to the holders of certain demesnes, and was next in order of rank to that of a bailiff. In Germany, the C. had the jurisdiction of a Burg-graf during the ages of chivalry. In Poland, the title of C., with its appendages, remained in later times, and, after the 16th c., the castellans, with the waiwodes and bishops, formed the senate or superior legislative chamber. CASTELLANETA, a town of Terra di Otranto, Naples, 20 miles north-west of Otranto. It has a cathedral and several convents. Cotton is grown in the district. Pop. 5400. about 5 miles south-west of Alessandria. Pop. 5200. CASTELLA'ZZO, a town of the Sardinian States, CASTELLEO'NÉ, a town of Lombardy, North Italy, situated near the Oglio, about 12 miles northnorth-west of Cremona. It is surrounded by old walls, has a fine church, and a population of 5700. invited to CASTELLIO, SEBASTIEN, a French theologian, was born in Dauphiné, in 1515. His proper name was Châteillon, which he Latinised, according to the usage of his time. About 1540, he was Humanity professor; but having the misfortune, Geneva by Calvin, and appointed afterwards, to differ from the reformer in religious opinion, he was banished from the city, and went to Basel, where he spent the rest of his life in great poverty. See CALVIN. Among his various writings may be mentioned CASTELLON-CASTILE. De Hæreticis, &c.-a treatise which argues against | lection for antiquarian studies, more particularly the right of the magistrate to punish heretical numismatics. When only 24 years of age, he opinions, and which produced a reply from Beza; a Latin version of the Old and New Testaments, published in 1551, and dedicated to Edward VI. of England; and a posthumous work, in dialogue, on predestination, election, free-will, and faith, first published by Faustus Socinus in 1578. CASTELLO'N DE LA PLA'NA, a town of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, is situated in the midst of a fruitful plain, about 4 miles from the Mediterranean, and 40 miles northnorth-east of Valencia. A magnificent aqueduct supplies the means of irrigation. C. is surrounded by walls, and is for the most part well built. It has some handsome old churches, and a singular bell-tower 260 feet high. Ribalta, the celebrated Spanish painter, was a native of Castellon de la Plana. It has manufactures of linen, woollen, sailcloth, paper, earthenware, and firearms; also brandy distilleries, and an active trade. Pop. 16,000. CASTELNAUDARY, a town in the department of Aude, France, situated on a declivity, skirted at the base by the Canal du Midi, 22 miles westnorth-west of Carcassone. It has manufactures of woollen and silk fabrics, and earthenware, and carries on a lively trade in agricultural produce. The canal at this point expands into a large basin, which serves as a haven. It suffered dreadfully in the crusade against the Albigenses, and was, in 1212, the scene of a battle between Simon de Montfort and Raymond, Count of Toulouse. In 1355, it was captured by the Black Prince. In 1632, Marshal Schomberg here gained a victory over the party of the Duke of Orleans, when the brave Duke of Montmorency was taken prisoner, and afterwards executed at Toulouse. CASTELNUO'VO, a seaport town of Dalmatia, Austria, situated near the west entrance of the Gulf of Cattaro. It is surrounded by walls, and defended by two forts and a citadel. It has manufactures of brass, and a trade in the produce of the district, which is fertile. It was captured by the British in 1814. Pop., including commune, 7000. CASTIGLIO'NÉ, LAKE OF, a lagoon of Tuscany, in the province of Siena. It lies to the north of Grosseto, and has a length of about 10 miles, with a breadth of from 1 to 3 miles. Receiving the waters of the Bruna and other rivers, it discharges its waters by a short canal into the Mediterranean. CASTIGLIO'NE BALDASA'RRE, COUNT, one of the most elegant of the old Italian writers, was born, 1478, at Casatico, in the duchy of Mantua, and studied at Milan. His shining talents, knowledge, and pleasing manners made him a favourite of Guidobaldo di Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino, a great patron of literature, at whose court he was honourably entertained, along with other men of eminence in letters. He was employed by the duke as envoy to Henry VIII. of England, who made him a knight; and was afterwards sent in the same capacity to Louis XII. of France, under Guidobaldo's successor, in several important ambassadorial missions. He died at Toledo in 1529. His chief work is the book Del Cortegiano, a manual for courtiers, remarkable for its elegant style. His Italian and Latin poems are also models of elegance, and his Letters (2 vols., Padua, 1769-1771) contain interesting contributions to the political and literary history of his time. Tasso devoted a sonnet to the death of C., and Giulio Romano raised to his memory a monument in Padua. CASTIGLIO'NE, CARLO OTTAVIO, COUNT, an eminent Italian philologist, was born at Milan in 1795. At an early period, he displayed a predi published a description of the Kufic coins in the cabinet of Brera, at Milan, under the title, Monete Cufiche del Museo di Milano (Milan, 1819), which shewed a great knowledge of oriental languages and history. C.'s principal work in the sphere of oriental literature is his Mémoire géographique et numismatique sur la Partie orientale de la Barbarie appelée Afrikiah par les Arabes, suivi de Recherches sur les Berbères Atlantiques (Milan, 1826), in which he seeks to ascertain the origin and the history of the towns in Barbary whose names are found on Arabic coins. Out of Italy, C. is perhaps best known by his edition of some fragments of the Moso-Gothic translation of the Bible by Ulphilas (q. v.), which had been discovered, in 1817, by Cardinal Mai among the palimpsests of the Ambrosian Library. At first, he published some specimens in conjunction with Mai, but in 1829, 1834, 1835, and 1839, appeared a variety of fragments enriched with valuable disquisitions, commentaries, of the Pauline epistles, edited by himself, and and glossaries. CASTIGLIO'NÉ DE'LLÉ STIVIE'RÉ, a town of Lombardy, North Italy, 22 miles north-west of Mantua. It is walled, and defended by an ancient castle; but is chiefly celebrated on account of the victory obtained here by the French over the Austrians in 1796, and which gave the title of Due de Castiglione to Marshal Augereau. Pop. 5200. CASTI'LE (Spanish CASTI'LLA) forms, in a geographical and political point of view, the central district of the Spanish peninsula, being the middle and most strongly marked plateau of Spain, as well as the central seat of the monarchy. Both geographically and politically it is divided into Old and New Castile-Castilla la Vieja and Castilla la Nueva. The former district, situated in 40° 5' 43° 32′ N. lat., and 1° 40'-5° 35′ W. long., rises, in the form of an elevated plateau, to the height of 2500-3000 feet. It is walled in on all sides on the north, by the highest masses of the Cantabrian inces and Asturias; on the south by the high ridge Mountains, which separate it from the Basque provinces and Asturias; on the south by the high ridge forming the water-shed between the Douro and the Tagus; while the Sierras de Oca, de Urbion, and Moncayo, and the heights of Leon and Tras-osMontes, bound it on the east and west. The high plateau of Old C. is but scantily watered, and its natural characteristics far from inviting. In many parts, nothing is presented to the eye but a wide, unwooded, almost treeless waste of land, unrefreshed by streams, in some parts monotonously covered with stunted grasses, and in others, almost destitute of vegetation. The traveller may walk many miles without finding a village, or even a solitary farmhouse. All Old C., however, is not a dusty desert. There are rich tracts in it producing some of the finest wheat in the world. Madder and grasses are also produced abundantly in some parts; and even the olive flourishes where it is protected from the frost and snow of the winter, and from the cold winds prevailing in October and the following months. Iron and other minerals exist in plenty, but are not worked to any great extent. Sheep, cattle, pigs, and mules form the chief wealth of the inhabitants. Manufactures consist of coarse woollens, cotton, linen, leather, and glass. The plateau of NEW CASTILE-which is situated between lat. 38° 23' and 41° 15' N., and long. 1° and 5° 25′ W.-like Old C., is also enclosed by moun tains. Though lying 1800 feet lower than Old C., New C. presents many similar characteristics of soil and scenery. It is mostly sterile, and scantily |