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CECILIA-CEDAR.

his office, and received many high honours, culminating in that of Earl of Salisbury. In 1608, he was made lord high treasurer, and the Exchequer was greatly improved in his hands. C. was a man of immense energy and far-reaching sagacity, undoubtedly the best minister the country had in his time; but he was cold, selfish, and unscrupulous as to the means he took to gain his ends, and get rid of his rivals. His connection with the disgrace of Essex and Raleigh laid him open to great and deserved odium, in the latter case especially. Like his father, however, he was free from the meanness and dishonesty of enriching himself out of the public money. He died May 24, 1612.

CECI ́LIA, ST., the patroness of music, is said to have suffered martyrdom in 230 A. D. Her heathen parents, as we are told, belonged to a noble Roman family, and betrothed their daughter, who had been converted to Christianity, to a heathen youth named Valerian. This youth and his brother Tiberius became Christian converts, and suffered martyrdom. C., when commanded to sacrifice to idols, firmly refused, and was condemned to death. Her persecutors, it is said, first threw her into a boiling bath, but on the following day they found her unhurt. The executioner next attempted to cut off her head, but found it impossible. Three days later, she died -rather a lame conclusion to such miraculous interference! As early as the 5th c., there is mention of a church dedicated to her at Rome; and in 821, by order of the Pope Paschal, her bones were deposited there. St. C. is regarded as the inventor of the organ, and in the Roman Catholic Church her festival-day, November 22, is celebrated with splendid music. Chaucer, Dryden, and Pope have celebrated St. C., and the painters Raphael, Domenichino, Dolce, and others have represented her in fine pictures.Another St. C. was born in Africa, and suffered martyrdom by starvation under Diocletian. The Roman Catholic Church celebrates her festival on the 11th of February.

CECRO'PIA, a genus of trees of the natural order Artocarpacea. C. peltata, a native of the West Indies and of South America, sometimes called Trumpet-wood and Snake-wood, is remarkable for its

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hollow stem and branches, exhibiting merely membranous partitions at the nodes. The small branches, these partitions being removed, are made into windinstruments. The wood is very light, readily takes fire by friction against a harder piece of wood, and is much used by the Indians for procuring fire in this way. The fruit is agreeable, and resembles a raspberry. Both the trunk and branches yield a large quantity of saline matter, which is employed by the French planters in the purification of sugar. The bark is strong and fibrous, and is much used for cordage. It is also astringent, and is applied in diarrhoea and other diseases.

CE'CROPS, the first king of Attica, figures in Greek mythology as an Autochthon (q. v.), half-man and half-dragon. Belonging, as he does, to the prehistoric ages of Greece, his real character can only be guessed at. Tradition declared him to be the founder of marriage, the author of the political division of Attica into twelve states, and the introducer of agriculture, of navigation, and commerce. He is also said to have civilised the religious rites of the people. The name C. is given to various towns in Greece, and the legends in general seem to indicate a Pelasgic origin for the hero. The later accounts, that he came from Sais in Egypt, have no historic basis.

CE'DAR, or CEDAR OF LE'BANON, a tree much celebrated from the most ancient times for its beauty, its magnificence, and its longevity, as well as for the excellence and durability of its timber. It is often mentioned in Scripture; it supplied the wood-work of Solomon's temple; and in the poetry of the Old Testament it is a frequent emblem of prosperity, strength, and stability. It belongs to the natural order Conifere, and is the Pinus Cedrus of the older botanists; but is now ranked in the genus Abies (see FIR), in the genus Larix (see LARCH), by those who make Larix a distinct genus from Abies, or is made the type of a genus, Cedrus, distinguished from Larix by evergreen leaves and carpels separating from the axis, and receives the name of C. Libani.

Of the celebrated CEDARS OF LEBANON, only a few now remain. They consist of a grove of some

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400 trees, about three-quarters of a mile in circumference, partly old trees, and partly young ones. Learned travellers think that most of the trees in the grove may be 200 years old, and several between the ages of 400 and 800 years. There are twelve trees whose age is incalculable-seven standing very near each other; three more a little further on, nearly in a line with them; and two, not observed by any recent traveller except Lord Lindsay, on the northern edge of the grove. The largest of these two is 63 feet in circumferencefollowing the sinuosities of the bark; one of the others measures 49 feet.

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These trees are more remarkable for girth than stature, their height hardly exceeding 50 feet. Their age is variously estimated; the rules by which botanists determine the age of trees are not applicgrow able to them, for their stems have ceased to regular concentric rings; they owe their prolonged existence to the superior vitality of a portion of their bark, which has survived the decay of the rest. Russeger is inclined to admit that these trees may possibly number some 2000 years.

The Arabs, of all creeds, have a traditional veneration for these trees; they believe that an evil fate would surely overtake any one who shall dare to

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lay sacrilegious hands on the saints, as they fondly than those of the C. of Lebanon, the scales of call them. Every year, at the feast of the Trans- the cones falling off as soon as the seed is ripe, figuration, the Maronites, Greeks, and Armenians and as differing from the C. of Lebanon also in more mount to the cedars, and celebrate mass on a homely altar of stone at their feet.

pensile branches and longer leaves; but Dr. Hooker expresses a strong opinion that they will prove to The C. has been planted in parks in many parts be really the same species, as well as the C. of of Europe; it was introduced into England in the ALGIERS (C. Atlantica or Africana), which is found latter part of the 17th c., and a tree of Sion House, in the mountainous regions of the north of Africa. London, is now eight feet in diameter at three The wood of the deodar is resinous, fragrant, feet above the ground. Even in Inverness-shire it compact, and very durable. It is susceptible of a succeeds so well, that trees of Beaufort Castle, the high polish, and in its polished state has been seat of Lord Lovat, planted in 1783, are now three compared to brown agate. Owing to the abundance or four feet in diameter. On its native mountains, of resin, laths of it burn like candles. Its turpentine the C. is found at the base of the highest peaks, at is very fluid, and although coarse, is much used in an altitude of about 8000 feet above the sea. It India for medical purposes; and tar and pitch are seems to delight in a dry open soil, where, however, obtained from the trunk. The deodar has now its roots can have access to abundance of water. become very common as an ornamental tree in Although in foliage and some other particulars the Britain, although few specimens have yet attained C. considerably resembles the common larch, it a very considerable size. On account of its extreme differs in form and habit very widely both from gracefulness when young, it is often planted in the larch and from the pines in general. Its stem situations to which large trees are unsuitable, and bears almost down to the ground irregularly placed is to be seen in many suburban parterres.-The branches, often of pro- name C. is often given to other coniferous trees digious size and expanse, besides the true cedars. Thus, the Siberian Stone which divide irregularly Pine, or Cembra Pine, is called the SIBERIAN C. (see into branchlets. The PINE), and a species of fir (Abies religiosa) is the leaves are dark green, RED C. of California (see FIR). A species of 10-15 lines long, pointed, Cypress (q. v.) is known as WHITE C., and another united in clusters of 20- as the C. or Goa. Several of the trees which bear 30; on the young shoots the name C. are species of Juniper (q. v.), among they are very numerous, which are the VIRGINIAN C., or RED C. of North and not in clusters; the America, and the BERMUDA C.-which yield the small branchlets also are cedar-wood used for pencils-the SPANISH C. of the crowded together and pen-south of Europe, &c. The name C. is even given to sile. The cones are erect, trees which have no resemblance to the true cedars, oval, broadly rounded at except in the resinous quality of the wood; thus both ends, about four the Cedar-wood of Guiana is produced by Icica inches long, and three altissima, a tree of the natural order Amyridacea inches in diameter; their (q. v.); the C. of the West Indies (see next article) scales closely crowded, belongs to the natural order Cedrelacea; and the large, and broad. The name BASTARD C. is given in India to a tree of the cones take two years to natural order Bytineriaceæ (q. v.). Cone of Cedar of Lebanon, come to maturity, and hang on the tree for years before their scales come off and their seeds are set free. The wood of the trunk is reddish, and full of a fragrant resin. The ancients kept their writings in cabinets or boxes of cedar-wood. Extraordinary indestructibility and other virtues were ascribed to it. It is not nearly so much prized at the present day, because it is soft and light, and apt to crack in drying. This inferiority is, however, not improbably owing to the inferior age of the trees from which the timber is now procured. A resinous substance, called Cedar Resin, or Cedria, flows spontaneously from the trunk of the C., or from incisions; it resembles mastic, and was anciently used along with other resins in the embalming of the dead. It was also used as a medicine. In very ancient times, C. OIL, a kind of turpentine, was prepared from the wood, and was spread on books in order to their better preservation. At the present day, the oil and the resin are scarcely known. The branches of the C., like those of the larch in warm countries, exude a sweet substance, which is known by the name of C. MANNA. The DEODAR, or HIMALAYAN C. (Cedrus Deodara), a tree held in great veneration by the Hindus, and of which the name is said to be properly Devadara, and to signify god-tree, is common in the Himalaya mountains, at elevations of 7000-12,000 feet, forming magnificent forests, and attaining a great size, a height sometimes of 150 feet, with a trunk 30 feet or more in circumference, an ample head, and spreading branches. It is described as having cones somewhat larger

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CEDAR, BARBADOES (Cedrela odorata), a tree of the natural order Cedrelacea (q. v.), and of the same genus with the toon of India, a native of the West Indies and warm parts of America. It is simply called Cedar in the West Indies. It is often upwards of eighty feet high, with a trunk remarkable for thickness. It has panicles of flowers resembling those of the hyacinth. The fruit, bark, and leaves have the smell of asafoetida, but the wood has an agreeable fragrance. Being soft and light, it is used for canoes, and for shingles. Havannah cigarboxes are very generally made of it. In France, it is used in making black-lead pencils.

CEDAR BIRD. See WAXWING.

CEDAR MOUNTAINS, a range of the Cape Colony, parallel with the Atlantic, and nearly halfway between it and the dividing ridge of the country. They form the height of land between the Oliphant on the west, and the Great Thorn, its principal tributary, on the east, varying in altitude from 1600 feet to 5000. They lie about lat. 32° S., and long. 19° E., in the division of Clanwilliam, and supply the village of that name with cedar planks. CE'DRATE. See CITRON.

CEDRELA'CEÆ, a natural order of exogenous plants, very nearly allied to Meliacea (q. v.), and chiefly distinguished by the winged seeds, numerous in each cell of the fruit, which is a capsule. The known species are few, all tropical or sub-tropical trees are shrubs, with pinnate leaves, most of them trees valuable for their timber. To this order belong mahogany, satin-wood, toon, Barbadoes cedar, the yellow-wood of New South Wales, &c. The barks

of some species are febrifugal.

CEFALU-CELERY.

That of Soymida | root, stem, and leaves, when fresh, have a disagreefebrifuga, the Rohuna or East Indian Mahogany, has able smell, and are full of a yellow juice, which is been imported into Britain as a medicine.

CEFALU', a town of Sicily, on the north coast, 47 miles east-south-east of Palermo. . It is situated at the foot of a rock, and is surrounded by old walls. It has a cathedral, and the ruins of a Saracenic castle occupy a neighbouring hill. As a seaport, it has little traffic. The inhabitants, numbering some 10,000, are chiefly engaged in fishing.

CEHEGI'N, a town of Spain, in the province of Murcia, 37 miles west-north-west of the city of that name. It has some spacious streets with handsome buildings, and manufactures of paper, cloth, and pottery. Pop. about 10,000.

CEILING (Fr. ciel; Lat. cœlum, heaven). This term seems to have been suggested by the use of arched coverings for churches, and even for rooms, which prevailed in the middle ages, and was not unknown to the Romans. Whether the term was further suggested by the habit of tinting ceilings of a blue colour, and decorating them with stars, or whether that usage arose from the use of the term already introduced, is more doubtful. Arched ceilings among the Romans were known by the name camera or camera, the Greek origin of which seems to furnish an argument in favour of the view that the arch was known to the latter people. The camera was formed by semicircular beams of wood, at small distances from each other, over which was placed a coating of lath and plaster. In later times, the camera were frequently lined with plates of glass; whence they were termed vitrea. But the ceilings most commonly in use amongst the Romans were flat, the beams, as in modern times, having been at first visible, and afterwards covered with planks and plaster. Sometimes hollow spaces were left between the planks, which were frequently covered with gold and ivory, or paintings. The oldest flat C. in existence is believed to be that of Peterborough Cathedral. Like that at St. Albans Abbey, it is made of wood, and plastered over like a modern ceiling. Ceilings of Churches, in the middle ages, were generally painted and gilded in the most brilliant manner; and many existing ceilings still exhibit the traces of early decoration of this kind. The older ceilings generally follow the line of the timbers of the roof, which in the Early English and Decorated, are often arranged so as to give the shape of a barrel vault. In ceilings of this description there are seldom many ribs, often only a single one along the top. In the perpendicular style, the C. often consists of a series of flat surfaces or cants, formed on the timbers of the roof. Though sometimes altogether destitute of ornament, they are more frequently enriched with ribs, dividing them into square panels, with bosses (q. v.) or flowers at the intersections. Wooden ceilings are sometimes | formed in imitation of stone-groining, with ribs and bosses, examples of which will be found at York, Winchester, and Lincoln. In the Elizabethan age, ceilings were generally of plaster, but they were ornamented with ribs having bosses or small pendants at the intersections. It is not unusual for the C. immediately over the altar, or the roodloft, to be richly ornamented, whilst the rest is plain.

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very acrid, causing inflammation when applied to the skin. C. is sometimes used in medicine: it is a drastic purgative, and in large doses an active poison; in small doses it is said to act beneficially on the lymphatic system and on the organs of secretion, and to be useful in scrofulous diseases, disease of the mesenteric glands, &c. The fresh juice, applied externally to warts, corns, &c., removes them by stimulating them beyond what their languid vital powers can bear. Mixed with milk, it is applied to the eye for the cure of opacities of the cornea, but is a remedy that requires great caution in its use.

CELA'NO, LAKE of.

See FUCINO, LAKE OF. CELASTRA'CEE. See SPINDLE-TREE. CE'LEBÉS, a large island of the Asiatic Archipelago, lying to the east of the south half of Borneo. It stretches between lat. 1° 50' N. and 5° 30′ S., and in long. between 119° and 125° E., its extreme dimensions thus being fully 500 and 400 miles; and yet it is so irregular in form-branching eastward into four peninsulas from a common root on the west

that it does not contain a single spot which is more than 50 miles from the sea. It has, for nearly 200 years, been colonised by the Dutch, whose possessions number 279,000 inhabitants, about onesixth of what is estimated to be the entire population. The rest of the island is divided into 13 separate principalities, peopled by distinct races in very different stages of civilisation. Mountains abound, rising, at one point, to an elevation of 7000 feet; and, as is the case with the archipelago as a whole, some of them are volcanic. The minerals are gold, iron, and salt. Besides the ordinary tropical productions, C. has extensive pastures, with excellent breeds of horses and cattle. Between 1811

and 1816, the Dutch settlements were held by the British. The chief town is Macassar, which gives name to the strait between C. and Borneo.

CE'LANDINE (Chelidonium), a genus of plants of the natural order Papaveraceae (the Poppy family), having a corolla of four petals, and a podlike capsule. The common C. (C. majus) is a perennial, CE'LERY (Apium), a genus of plants of the natural with pinnate leaves, lobed leaflets, and yellow order Umbellifera, distinguished by a mere rudimenflowers in simple umbels, frequent under hedges, in tary calyx, roundish entire petals, very short styles, waste places, &c., in Britain, and most parts of and roundish fruit. The common C. (A. graveolens) Europe. It flowers from May to September. The | is found wild in Britain and most parts of Europe,

CELESTINE-CELIBACY.

in ditches, brooks, &c., especially near the sea and in | given in the Jewish Scriptures (Gen. i. 28), the opinsaline soils. Its leaves are dark green and smooth, ion had become prevalent, even before the time of its petals involute at the tip. The wild plant, Christ, that C. was favourable to an intimate also called SMALLAGE, has a stem about two feet union with God. This notion took its origin in high, a tapering slender root, a penetrating offensive the wide-spread philosophy of a good and an evil odour, a bitterish acrid taste, and almost poisonous principle. The body, consisting of matter, the seat qualities. By cultivation, it is so much changed of evil, was looked upon as the prison of the pure that its taste becomes agreeably sweetish and aro- soul, which was thought to be defiled by bodily matic, whilst either the leaf-stalks much increase in enjoyments. Among the Jewish sect of the Essenes, thickness, or the root swells in a turnip-like manner. accordingly, a life of C. was held to be the chief These parts, blanched, are much used as a salad, or road to sanctity. These ascetic views naturally to impart flavour to soups, &c., and sometimes as a led, in the first place, to the disapproval of second boiled vegetable. They contain sugar, mucilage, marriages. While, therefore, in the first Christian starch, and a substance resembling manna-sugar, churches, every one was left at liberty to marry which acts as a stimulant, particularly on the urino- or not as he thought fit, the objection to those who genital organs, so that a very free and frequent married a second time had become so generally indulgence in the use of C. cannot, in ordinary spread, that the Apostle Paul saw occasion to counsel circumstances, be altogether favourable to health. such Christian converts as were in widowhood to reTwo principal varieties of C. are cultivated, that main so. most common in Britain having long thick leafstalks, which are more or less tubular, sometimes almost solid, and, after blanching, 'either white or more or less tinged with red; whilst the other, called TURNIP-ROOTED C., or CELERIAC, is chiefly remarkable for its swollen turnip-like root, and is in most general cultivation on the continent of Europe. The 'red' varieties of C. are esteemed rather more hardy than the 'white.' The blanching of the leaf-stalks is generally accomplished by drawing up earth to the plants, which are transplanted from the seed-bed into richly manured trenches; and as they grow the trenches are filled up, and the earth finally raised into ridges, above which little more than the tops of the leaves appear. C. is thus obtained for use throughout the winter. In the northern parts of Britain, the seed is generally sown on a hotbed. C. seed is often used for flavouring, when the leaf-stalks cannot be obtained. Another species of C. (Apium australe) grows abundantly in wet places on the shore about Cape Horn and in Staten Island. It is a large, hardy, and luxuriant plant, and is described as wholesome and very palatable, nearly equal in its wild state to our gardencelery. It seems well worthy of the attention of horticulturists.

CE'LESTINE, a mineral bearing the same relation to strontia (q. v.) that heavy spar bears to baryta. It is essentially sulphate of strontia (StOSO,), with occasional admixture of sulphate of baryta, carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, &c., in small proportions. It much resembles heavy spar, but is not quite equal to it in specific gravity; it is usually blue, often of a very beautiful indigo-blue; sometimes colourless, more rarely reddish or yellowish. Its crystallisation is rhombic, like that of heavy spar. Most beautiful specimens of crystallised C. are found in Sicily. C. derives its name from its colour. It is used as a source of strontia.

CELESTINES, an order of hermits of St. Damianus, founded by Peter de Morrone about 1264, and confirmed as a monkish order by Urban IV. in 1264 and 1274. They called themselves C. when their founder ascended the papal chair under the name of Celestine V. They are regarded as a branch of the great order of St. Benedict, whose rule they follow; they wear a white garment with black hood and scapulary, and live a purely contemplative life. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the order rapidly spread through France, Italy, and Germany, but subsequently decayed. The French C. were secularised by order of Pope Pius VI. in 1776-1778; so also were the Neapolitan Celestines. In the present day, the order is almost extinct.

CE'LIBACY, from Lat. cælebs, unmarried. Notwithstanding the divine commendation of marriage

By the 2d c., however, the unmarried life generally had begun to be extolled, and to be held necessary for a life of sanctity, although several, at least, of the apostles themselves had been married. Two passages of Scripture (1 Cor. vii. and Rev. xiv. 4) were specially cited as proving that C. was the genuine condition of a Christian; and with the platonising Fathers of the 2d and 3d centuries, the unmarried of both sexes were held as standing higher than the married. Accordingly, although there was no express law against the marriage of the clergy, many, especially of the bishops, remained unmarried; a second marriage was, in their case, already strictly prohibited.

As the bishops of Rome rose in consideration, and gradually developed a firmer church government, they called upon all who belonged to the clerical order to live for the church alone, and not marry. This requirement met with constant resistance; still, it became more and more the custom, in the 4th c., for the higher clergy to refrain from marriage, and from them it went over to the lower orders and to the monks. Provincial synods now began expressly to interdict the clergy from marrying. The council of Tours (566) suspended for a year all secular priests and deacons who were found with their wives; and the Emperor Justinian by an edict declared all children born to a clergyman, after ordination, to be illegitimate, and incapable There were still, however, many of inheritance. married priests who resisted the law, and found encouragement in the opposition which the Greek Church made to that of Rome in this matter of celibacy. The council held at Constantinople in 692, declared, in opposition to the Church of Rome, that priests and deacons might live with their wives as the laity do, according to the ancient custom and The orthodox Greek ordinance of the apostles. Church has continued to adhere to this decision.

Priests and deacons in that church may marry before ordination, and live in marriage after it; but they are not allowed to marry a second time. However, only a priest living in C. can be chosen as bishop or patriarch.

The Church of Rome continued its endeavours to

There

enforce the law of C.; though, for several centuries,
they were attended with only partial success.
still continued to be numbers of priests with wives,
still continued to be numbers of priests with wives,
although the councils were always issuing new
orders against them. Popes Leo IX. (1048-1054)
and Nicolas II. (1058-1061) interdicted all priests
that had wives or concubines from the exercise of
any spiritual function, on pain of excommunication.
Alexander II. (1061-1073) decreed excommunica
tion against all who should attend a mass celebrated
by a priest having a wife or concubine. This decision
was renewed by Gregory VII. in a council held at

CELL-CELLINI.

discussed. And in Spain, the Academy of Ecclesiastical Science took the subject into consideration in a meeting held in 1842; while the Portuguese Chambers had previously, in 1835, discussed it, though without result. The same took place in Brazil, about 1827.

Rome in 1074, and a decretal was issued that every | France, also, the question, about 1829, was eagerly layman who should receive the communion from the hands of a married priest should be excommunicated and that every priest who married or lived in concubinage, should be deposed. The decree met with the most violent opposition in all countries; but Gregory succeeded in carrying it out with the greatest rigour; and though individual instances of married priests were still to be found in the 12th and 13th centuries, the C. of the Roman Catholic clergy was established, and has since continued both in theory and practice.

The violence thus done to human nature did not fail to avenge itself in those rude times. The licentiousness and corruption of the priests and monks became in many cases boundless, and it was in vain that strict individuals, as well as councils, strove against it. The immorality and debasement of the clergy became a reproach and by-word in the mouth of the people, and gave a powerful impulse to the religious movement that began in the 16th century. The leading Reformers declared against the C. of the clergy as unfounded in Scripture, and contrary to the natural ordinance of God, and Luther set the example of marrying. This was not without effect on the Roman Catholic clergy, and the question of the abolition of C. was raised at the council of Trent (1563). But the majority of voices decided that God would not withhold the gift of chastity from those that rightly prayed for it, and the rule of C. was thus finally and for ever imposed on the ministers of the Roman Catholic Church. Those who have only received the lower kinds of consecration may marry on resigning their office. For all grades above a sub-deacon, a papal dispensation is necessary. A priest that marries incurs excommunication, and is incapable of any spiritual function. If a married man wishes to become a priest, he receives consecration only on condition that he separate from his wife, and that she of her free will consent to the separation, and enter a religious order, or take the vow of chastity. The priests of the united Græco-Catholic congregations in Rome have received permission from the popes to continue in marriage, if entered into before consecration, but on condition of always living apart from their wives three days before they celebrate mass.

Notwithstanding these decisions, the contest against clerical C. has again and again been resumed, in recent times, both within and without the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, all attempts at innovation within the bosom of Catholicism, connect themselves with the attack on C., the abolition of which would deeply affect the constitution and position of that church. So far back as 1817, the Catholic Faculty of Tübingen expressed the opinion that compulsory C. was one of the chief causes of the want of Catholic ministers. In 1826, the Catholic clergy of Silesia put in petitions to the bishop for the abolition of C.; and unions were afterwards formed in Baden, Würtemberg, Bavaria, Silesia, and Rhenish Prussia, which, along with alterations in the doctrines and ritual of the Romish Church, combined attacks on the prohibition of marriage to the clergy. A work was also published, entitled The Introduction of Compulsory Celibacy among the Christian Priesthood, and its consequences, (Altenb. 1828, new ed. 1845), which excited great attention. At last the abolition of the law came to be discussed in the legislatures of Baden, Saxony, and other countries. The church claimed this subject as belonging exclusively to her jurisdiction, and not to that of the state; and in Würtemberg the clergy induced the government to suppress the anti-celibacy society; but this only made their opponents in the press the more zealous. In

During the commotions of 1848, the subject was again brought into prominence in Germany. The German Catholics (q. v.) had already abolished C.; and a general measure was called for in the Frankfort parliament, in the Prussian Assembly, and in the press. In Austria, also, voices were raised against it; but here the state took the side of the pope, who, in a bull of 1847, had added fresh stringency to the rule of C., and condemned its infringement.

CELL (Lat. cella, from celo, to conceal). The Latin word had nearly all the significations which we attach to the English one, and a good many besides which we have not borrowed. For example, the whole space within the walls of an ancient temple was called the cella. But the interior was frequently divided into several cellæ, in which case each C. took the name of the, deity whose statue it contained, and was called the C. of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and the like. In these cases, the word approached to its general meaning, which, with the Romans as with us, was that of a store-room, or small apartment where objects of any kind were stowed away. In modern architecture, the term Vaulting C. signifies the hollow space between the principal ribs of a vaulted roof.

left bank of the Aller, which at this point becomes CE'LLÉ, or ZELL, a town of Hanover, on the Hanover. It is situated in the midst of a sandy navigable, 23 miles north-east of the city of plain, well built, and has a palace with a garden, in which Matilda, sister of George III., is buried. The chief manufactures are linen, hosiery, tobacco,. The inhabitants, about 10,000, are very industrious.. wafers, soap, &c.

An active commerce is also

carried on by the Aller, and by railway.

CELLI'NI, BENVENU'TO, a celebrated Italian goldworker, sculptor, founder, and medailleur, remarkable not only for his skill as an artist, but also for his checkered life, was born at Florence in the year 1500, and first displayed skill as a chaser and gold-worker. His autobiography is a remarkably curious and interesting work, presenting us with a complete picture of the author's life and character; his activity, his extraordinary weaknesses, the impetuosity of his passions, the perilous circumstances in which his quarrelsome disposition placed him (for C. thought nothing of committing manslaughter in a moment of rage), and the ludicrous vanity and credulity which are never absent from him. The book is also of great value in a historico-social point of view, but does not impress us favorably in regard either to the personal or social morals of the time.

At an early period, having been banished from Florence, in consequence of an 'affray,' C. went to Rome, where he was employed by many distinguished patrons of art, but afterwards was allowed to return to Florence. Another affray' compelled him to flee to Rome a second time, where he secured the favour of Clement VII. C., by his own account, was as great in arms as in art; he declares that it was himself who killed the Constable Bourbon and the Prince of Orange at the siege of Rome. His reckless conduct for some years compelled his constant shifting between Rome and Florence, Mantua, and Naples. In 1537 he went to the court of France, where he was very honorably received. Illness, however, induced him to return yet once more to

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