CELT-CELTIC NATIONS. Among the best editions are those of Krause (Leip. I 1766), Dr. Milligan's 2d edition (Edin. 1831), and one at Cologne, 1835. CELT (Lat. celtis, a chisel), the name by which certain weapons or implements of the early inhabitants of Western Europe are known among archæologists. Celts are either of stone or of bronze. Stone celts vary in length from about 1 inch to 22 inches; but the most common size is from 6 to 8 inches in length, and from 2 to 3 inches in breadth. They are made of almost every kind of stone, and shew considerable diversity of shape, almost all, however, having more or less resemblance to the muscle-shell. Fig. 1 in the accompanying woodcut shews a stone C. of the better kind. The ruder celts are generally of slate, shale, schist, or grit; the finer, of flint, porphyry, geenstone, syenite, or agate. Many of the finer celts are beautifully shaped and highly polished. A remarkable example of this class, the property of Sir Coutts Lindsay, found near St. Andrews, in Scotland, is described by Sir David Brewster in the Philosophical Journal for 1823. Recently, a class of celts found in the later geological strata have excited much interest as well | among archæologists as among geologists. They are obviously of the same type with the more common celts, but of ruder construction, as if fashioned by a more barbarous people. The stone C. was fastened into a handle of horn, bone, or wood, as shewn in the accompanying wood-cut. Fig. 2 rep resents a C. of serpentine, with a handle of deer-horn, found in one of the Swiss lakes in July 1859. Fig. 3 represents a stone C. with a wooden handle, found in the county of Tyrone, in Ireland. low to receive the handle, and generally with a loop or ear upon its lower surface, as in fig. 7. Both stone and bronze celts were probably used for several purposes, serving for chisels, adzes, and axes, as well as for weapons of war, like the stone hatchets of the South Sea Islanders and other savage or barbarous tribes. Examples of stone and bronze celts of all classes (together with the moulds in which bronze celts were cast) may be seen in the British Museum at London, in the National Museum of the Antiquaries of Scotland at Edinburgh, and in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin. This last collection has more than 500 examples of stone celts, about one-half of which were found in deepening the bed of the Shannon or its tributaries, bronze celts has more than once been discovered at between the years 1843 and 1848. A bushel of one spot. CELTIBE'RI, a powerful people of ancient Spain, supposed to have sprung from a blending of the Iberians or Spanish aborigines with Celtic invaders from Gaul. The C. inhabited a large inland district of the Peninsula, corresponding to the south-west half of Aragon, nearly the whole of Cuença and Soria, and a great part of Burgos, but the name Celtiberia had often a wider signification, including the country as far south as the sources of the Guadalquivir. The C. were divided into four tribes, and were unquestionably one of the bravest and noblest peoples in the Peninsula. Their cavalry and infantry were equally excellent. For many years, they withstood the efforts of the Romans to subdue them, and it was not till after the campaigns of Sertorious that they began to adopt the Roman language, dress, and. manners. CELTIC NATIONS, one of the groups of the great Aryan (q. v.) family. Languages. In addition to the English, and retreating before it, there are at present four languages spoken in the British Isles-the Irish, the Highland Scotch (or Gaelic), the Manx, in the Isle of Man-all three nearly related to one another, and constituting the northern (Erse, Gadhelic) branch of the Celtic languages; whilst the fourth language, the Welsh, constitutes, together with the Cornish of Cornwall (extinct since 1778) and the Bas Breton of Brittany, the southern (Briton, Cymric, Cambric) branch. The remains of the language of the Gauls or Celts, the ancient inhabitants of France, closely resemble the British and Gadhelic idioms; hence the name Celtic languages has been applied to the whole of them. The Celtic idioms belong to the Indo-German (Aryan) family, as their numerals shew. Com 3. trí tri trayas 4. cethir (ck) pedwar chatvâras pimp panchan 6. se chwech shash 7. secht (n) seith saptan Bronze celts vary in length from about 1 inch to 8 or 10 inches, the most common length being about 6 inches. They are sometimes ornamented with rudely incised lines or circles, and have occasionally been found wrapped up in linen, or enclosed in bronze cases or sheaths. They shew much greater diversity of shape than the stone celt. As many as four classes have been distinguished by archæologists -1st, The simple wedge-shaped C., most nearly The Gaulish was nearer to the Cymric branch, its resembling the common form of the stone C., as in numerals 4 and 5 having been petor, pempe. There the accompanying wood-cut, fig. 4. 2d, The wedge- are a few Gaulish inscriptions which shew a declen| shaped C., with sides more or less overlapping, and sion with full inflections; in old Irish, five cases still a stop-ridge or elevation between the blade and the exist, but the terminations are very much mutilated; part which received the handle, as in fig. 5. 3d, in Welsh, they have disappeared. Thus, the Gaulish The wedge-shaped C., with sides greatly overlapping, name Segomaros is declined: gen. -ri, dat, -ru, acc. with or without the stop-ridge, but with a loop or -ron: the old Irish, fer, a man, has the gen. fir, dat. ear upon, and parallel to, its lower surface, as in fiur, acc. fer. voc. fir; whilst the corresponding fig. 6. 4th, The socketed C., or the C. with a hol- Welsh gwr is inflexible. Hence it follows that the CELTIC NATIONS. pseudo-simplicity of the Welsh is the result of grammatical decay, common in all Aryan languages, and does not at all warrant Latham's theory, that the Celts branched off from the primitive IndoGerman nation before the development of case inflections. History. Of the separation of the Celts from the other Aryans or Indo-Germans, and their early migrations to Western Europe, no record has come down, the stories about Milesian colonies in Ireland, and migrations from Troy into Wales, being simply monkish fictions. At the dawn of history, we find the Gauls (Galli, Celtæ, Galatai) occupying France (Gallia), which was divided into Aquitania, between the Pyrenees and Garonne; Gallia Celtica Proper, between the Garonne and Seine; and Belgica, from the Seine to the Rhine. The land about the Rhone being more early conquered by the Romans than the rest, was set apart by them under the name of Gallia Narbonensis, or Gallia Lugdunensis (from the towns Narbo and Lugdunum, Narbonne and Lyon). The whole of the four was called Gaul beyond the Alps (Gallia Transalpina). A great many tribes of Gauls had settled in Lombardy, where they founded Mediolanum (Milan), and which therefore took the name of Gallia Cisalpina (Gaul this side the Alps). Other Gauls had penetrated into Spain, where they became mixed with the native Iberians, and thus gave rise to the Celtiberians about the river Iberus (Ebro). Numerous hosts migrated across the Rhine, occupied Southern Germany and Bohemia, and, following the course of the Danube, some invaded Thrace and Greece (278 B. C.); but being repelled, the main body of them settled in Asia Minor, in the province called after them Galatia. The Romans found the Gauls at first very formidable enemies; Rome itself was burned by them (389 B. C.), but gradually the Romans conquered first Gallia Cisalpina (222), then Gallia Narbonensis (112), and lastly, Cæsar subjected all France (52 B.C.), after which the Gauls soon became Romanised. The Gauls of Asia Minor, for a long time the terror of all the neighbourhood, were defeated by the Romans (187), and their land finally made a province of the empire (25 B. C.).-The Britons (Britanni; Welsh, Brython) were little known before Cæsar's two unsuccessful expeditions into Britannia; the country was conquered by the Roman general Agricola (78-84 A. D.), who secured the new province against the inroads of the Caledonians of Scotland by a fortification across the Scotch Lowlands, between the Forth and the Clyde, afterwards removed by the Emperor Hadrian further southward, to between Solway Firth and the mouth of the Tyne. The Britons were so much influenced by Roman civilisation-they were also early converted to Christianity-that the heathen Angles and Saxons, who conquered them in the 5th and 6th centuries, called them Welsh; a name which, with the other Teutons, applies to all nations speaking languages of Latin descent. A few of the Britons maintained their independence in Cornwall, Cumberland, and in the mountains of Wales. On the last, the name Welsh was ultimately fixed by the English; they themselves, however, called their nation Cymro, pl. Cymry (a compound of cyn, with, in common, and bro, land having a common country, countrymen, in contradistinction to the foreign invader), a name which has nothing to do with Cimbri and Cimmerii. The Welsh remained independent under different petty princes till 1282, when Edward I. conquered them. A part of the Britons went over in the 4th c. to France, where they took possession of Brittany, which maintained a doubtful independence under dukes of its own till about 1500.-Whether the Caledonians, the oldest inhabitants of Scotland, were Celts of the Cymric or Erse branch, is unknown. After the 3d c., their name disappears, and we hear, instead, of the Scoti and Picti. As to the latter, the same doubt prevails; but the Scoti were emigrants from Ireland, both Scotus and Gadhelus being common national names of the old Irish. From Gadhel, the modern Gael, Gaelic is derived, which has nothing to do with the name of the Galli.-Ireland (Hibernia, whence the modern Eirinn is derived) enters into the light of history with its conversion to Christianity by St. Patrick (460). The four centuries following on this event are the brightest period in its history. Ireland was then the seat of piety and learning, and sent forth numerous missionaries, by whom many monasteries, centres of civilisation, were founded-as Iona, in Scotland, by Columba (563); St. Gall, by Gallus (615); Würzburg, by Kilian (687). In the 7th c., we find Irish bishops at Ratisbon; and Virgilius (Feargal), (died 784), Bishop of Salzburg, played no small part in the ecclesiastical history of Germany. But Ireland remained politically divided among many princes, and so became an easy prey of those black heathens' the Scandinavians, whose invasions began 795, and who founded Norse kingdoms at Dublin, Waterford, Limerick, &c. In the fierce battles between the two nations, the prosperity of Ireland rapidly declined, and the English conquest (1171) only completed the ruin.-The Isle of Man, inhabited by a branch of the Irish, after having been subject to Welsh, Scotch, and Norse princes in turn, acknowledged England's sovereignty in 1344. Religion and Mythology.-A few notices in the classics and the Latin inscriptions of Gaul, are our rather meagre sources of information on the Celtic paganism. As the three chief gods, or three of the chief gods, Lucan mentions Teutates, Hesus, and Taranis, all of them worshipped with human sacrifices. Taranis reappears as Jupiter Taranucnus on an inscription; and from this identification with Jupiter, as well as from the fact that in Welsh taran means thunder, we may infer that he was the god of the thunder-storm. Other gods frequently occurring on inscriptions are Apollo Grannus, Apollo Belenus, Mars Camulus, Minerva Belisama, &c., all of them, however, empty names to us. A remarkable feature in Gaulish religion was the worship of certain Mother Goddesses (called on the inscriptions Junones, Matronæ, Dex Matres, Campestres, Nymphæ). They are frequently connected with special localities, as in the inscriptions dedicated to Matronis Lanehiabus, M. Hamavehis, M. Rumanehabus, and on the one in Gaulish: Matrebo Namaucicabo, 'to the Mothers of Nîmes.' To this class apparently belongs the Dea Nehalennia, once represented on a relief with a basket of fruit, and a dog for companion. Mela, the geographer, speaks of an island in the Atlantic, near Gaul, where there was an oracle superintended by nine maidens, who could cause storms, take the form of any animal, could cure what otherwise was incurable, and predicted the future. These goddesses, at once motherly and maidenly, residing in field and wood (campestres, nymphæ), givers of plenty and prophets of the future, are the heathen prototypes of the fees (fairies, as distinguished from 'elfs') of the middle ages. The 'little folk' were known to the Gauls under the name of Dusii. They believed in the existence of individual tutelary genii, as a stone of Lausanne shews, being erected by three Gauls, Sulfis SUIS (hence our sylph ?). The belief in the transmigration of souls was common amongst the Gauls, or at least their priests the Druids, so called from their performing sacred rites in oak-woods (Welsh, derw, an oak; derwydd, CELTIC NATIONS. a Druid). These Druids were also the depositaries | The would-be Gaelic Gaelic original of Macpherson's of knowledge and tradition, and constituted, in work, edited 1807, is in all probability a retranslaGaul at least, a powerful hierarchy, with a supreme tion. Of Irish prose, the annals are the most pontiff. Druids are found both in Ireland and in important part: first, those of Tigernach (1088), Wales, and the fées abound in Welsh tradition; then the Annales Inisfalienses, A. Ultonienses; lastly, but it is very doubtful whether the superhuman the Annals of the Four Masters, being a compilation beings appearing in the Welsh poems of the 12th made (1634) from older sources by four Franciscans, and 13th centuries-such as Hu Gadarn, the beginning with 242 after the Deluge, and ending reputed founder of Bardic institutions (see beneath) with 1616 A. D.-The oldest remains of Welsh literaare genuine relics of the British religion. The ture are the songs, so far as they are genuine, of the belief in transmigration lasted very long, as the bards of the 6th c.-Liwarch Hen, Aneurin, Taliesin medieval Welsh tale of Taliesin speaks distinctly having chiefly the life and deeds of contemporary of Taliesin's successive existences. Though not properly mythological, we may mention here the romantic stories of the Britons about King Arthur and his knights. He is first mentioned by Nennius in the 9th c.; but his fable was further developed in the next centuries both in Wales and Brittany, then embodied in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Britonum, which served as the groundwork of the French Roman de Brut of Wace. Through these works, and partly, also, through the direct influence of the oral traditions of Brittany, it passed into French literature, and thence spread over all Europe. princes for their subject, but few in number. In the 10th c., we have the collection of laws by Howel Dda. The historians Gildas and Nennius, of the 9th c., wrote in Latin. The great age of Welsh literature is the 12th and succeeding centuries, when the energies of the nation were roused in the struggle with England. In this contest, the bards played a conspicuous part as agitators. After a long interval, we hear again of a great bard, Meylyr (1100); many follow, amongst whom Kynddelw (1200) deserves special mention, both as a poet (we have 49 pieces of his) and a patriot. Welsh poetry consists in1. Political lyrics, war-songs, songs in praise of chieftains, elegies on the same. 2. Religious hymns. 3. Pseudonymous poems, ascribed to Merddin (Merlin), the mythical enchanter, and Taliesin, the old bard, having generally the form of prophesies on the struggle between the Saxons and Welsh, and the ultimate triumph of the latter. Thus, in the Avalennau (or Apple-trees), attributed to Merlin, the Welsh nation is enigmatically represented under the image of 'seven score and seven sweet apple-trees,' whose fruits, princes (viz., the English) wish in vain to despoil. 4. The Triads, short memorial (?) verses in which three remarkable events, subjects, or persons are respectively mentioned, hence the name, embracing history, theology, jurisprudence. 5. Dialogues of dramatic character. There were-apparently now lost-also miracle plays actually represented. Literature.-The Gauls learned writing from the Greeks; later, they employed the Roman alphabet, as do the Welsh and Irish, the now used Irish character being nothing but the common AngloSaxon form of the Latin alphabet. Besides, however, the Irish claim an old character of their own, the Ogham, in which the letters are represented by a number of vertical strokes put in a right angle to a horizontal line, or else by horizontal strokes to a vertical line. Some of the Ogham inscriptions are said to be older than Christianity. Even more doubtful is the antiquity of a Welsh so-called Bardic alphabet, in which there seem to be no inscriptions extant, and which is, at any rate, an alteration of the Roman character. A feature common to all Celts is the existence of a kind of literary order, the Bards (q. v.), poets and guardians of tradition--in Gaul, nearly related to or part of the priesthood; in Wales and Ireland, in immediate The only remarkable remnant of Cornish literature connection with the kings.-A Gaulish literature comes under this head, being three ecclesiastical there certainly was, as Cæsar informs us that, in plays of the 14th c.-The Creation, the Passion, and the schools of the Druids, the young men used to the Resurrection.--In Welsh prose, we have first the learn by heart a great number of verses on theolo- chronicles. Geoffrey's chronicle, though Latin, is gical and historical subjects. But these poems were thoroughly national; then there is that of Caradoc, never written down. It is highly probable that who begins where Geoffrey leaves off; and the Liber rhyme, first used by St. Ambrosius (397) in his Landavensis, a history of the bishops of Llandaff hymns, is of Gaulish origin, this being the common down to 1132. Further, we have the Mabinogion form even of the oldest Irish and Welsh poems.- (Children's Tales), romantic stories. The most The Irish literature began with the conversion, but interesting of these refer to Arthur and his our existing manuscripts are not older than the 9th champions; the lady of the fountain, Peredur, Geraint or 8th century. Interlinear versions of biblical and (now revived by Tennyson), Arthur's boar-hunt. other theological, or of grammatical writings, are Amongst the non-Arthurian tales, special mention about the oldest manuscripts, many of which, in is deserved by the Mabinogi of Taliesin, interconsequence of the missionary zeal of the nation, spersed with verses, relating the adventures, transare to be found at St. Gall, Milan, and other formations into animal shape, and transmigrations continental places. Then there are ecclesiastic of that bard. There are besides some scientific hymns, one of the oldest ascribed to Patrick. A writings, a treatise on medicine, another on geometry, renowned author of poems in the tenth c. was Echad O'Flin. Secular poetry of ancient times there has come down to us none, but we have testimonies as old as the 12th c., of the existence of such, ascribed in a general way to the old pagan hero Oisin, son of MacCumhal. The existing specimens, mostly warlike-except some dialogues between Oisin and St. Patrick-are recent. Those Gaels that went over to Scotland, took, of course, similar traditions with them. With a partial knowledge of these, Macpherson composed (1765) the work which he declared (rather loosely) to be an English translation of the songs of the old Scotch poet Ossian, son of Fingal (the true Oisin was an Irishman). and one on Welsh prosody by Edeyrn (1260). This last, a grammatical essay in and on a vernacular tongue, is paralleled in the middle ages only by Icelandic literature, to which, upon the whole, the Welsh, although not quite so high, bears a marked resemblance. Concluding Remarks.-Altogether, the Celts are a very important branch of our Indo-German family. The incessant warfares of the Gauls bespeak at least activity of mind and body; the Irish missions have done a great deal for European civilisation; whilst the traditions of the Britons have deeply influenced medieval literature. The one great defect of the Celts is incapacity for political organisation. Their CELTIS-CEMENTS. very enthusiasm, lively feeling, and vivid imagination, have ever prevented them from taking coolly and deliberately those measures which lead to national unity; hence it is that they gave way before the more practical Roman and Teuton. But while they lost their independence, and oftentimes their very language in the contest with the foreigner, whose strong hand moulded them into national unity, yet they reacted on him in their turn. They are fast disappearing by merging into the English; but if the quiet resolution, the sturdy common sense, the talent for public life, state organisation, and political dominion, that characterise the modern British nation, are altogether Teutonic-on the other hand, their genuine refinement of manner and feeling, and their high poetical susceptibilities, are to no small extent due to the admixture of Celtic blood. CELTIS. See NETTLE-TREE. CE'MBRA NUT AND CEMBRA PINE. See PINE. CEMENTATION OF STEEL is OF STEEL is the process followed in the production of Blistered Steel (q. v.), or steel of cementation. CEMEʼNTS. A cement is a substance used to make the surfaces of solid bodies adhere to one another; it is applied in a liquid or viscous state, and hardens after the surfaces are brought together. When fused metals or alloys are used in this manner, they are called solders. There is a great variety of C. derived from animal, vegetable, and mineral substances. The animal C. are chiefly composed of gelatine and albumen as their bases. Joiners' glue is an example. See GLUE. The binding materials of vegetable C. are gums, resins, and wax. The mineral C. are chiefly of lime and its compounds. In many C., animal, vegetable, and mineral substances are combined. The simplest of the mineral C. is plaster of Paris, which is used for uniting slabs of marble, alabaster, and many similar purposes. It is mixed with water to the consistence of thick cream, and then applied. This hardens rapidly, but is not very strong. Its hardening depends upon the true chemical combination of the water with anhydrous sulphate of lime, of which plaster of Paris is composed, and the formation thereby of a solid hydrate. The plaster of Paris may be mixed with thin glue, with diluted white of egg, or a solution of size or gum, instead of water, and is strengthened thereby. Keene's marble cement is prepared by steeping plaster of Paris in a concentrated solution of alum, then recalcining and powdering. This powder is mixed with water in the same manner as plaster of Paris. It is used as a stucco for internal decorations, takes a high polish, and when coloured, forms beautiful imitations of mosaic, marbles, scagliola, &c. A mixture of paper-pulp, size, and plaster of Paris in equal proportions, forms a useful cement, and is also used as a sort of papier-mâché for casting into architectural ornaments, &c. Common mortar is one of the most important of the lime cements. It is composed of slaked lime, or a mixture of this with sand; its hardening depends upon the slow formation of carbonate of lime by the absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and a partial combination with the silica of the sand. Cow-hair is sometimes mixed with it, to bind it when laid in masses. In order to obtain a fine smooth paste, which is required for good mortar, the lime should be slaked rapidly by adding about three parts of water to one of lime; if the quantity of water is too small, a coarser or semi-crystalline hydrate of lime is produced by the slaking. For the mode of applying mortar, see BRICKWORK. Ordinary mortar, when exposed to the continuous action of water, softens and disintegrates, and some of the lime dissolves away. Lime which contains 20 to 30 per cent. of clay, or finely divided silica, produces a mortar which is not liable to this softening, but possesses the property of hardening under water; such lime is called hydraulic, and the mortar made from it, hydraulic cement or mortar. Puzzolana, a porous lava found at Puzzuoli, near Naples, has been long celebrated for its property of forming a hydraulic cement, when mixed with ordinary lime. It is mainly composed of silicates of alumina, lime, and soda. Portland cement, so named from its resemblance to Portland stone when dry, is made from clay found in the valley of the Medway, which is intimately mixed with the neighbouring chalk, and then burned. Roman cement is similar to the Portland, but of a darker colour; it contains a larger proportion of clay, and solidifies more rapidly. These C. should be mixed with a sufficient quantity of water, to form a moderately thick paste; the surfaces to which they are applied should be well wetted, and the cement kept slightly moist until it hardens. The solidification of hydraulic cements depends upon the combination of the lime with the silica and alumina forming, first a hydrated compound, and finally a true silicate. They expand slightly in solidifying. The following receipts include some of the most useful and reliable C. applicable to the purposes specified: For water-tight joints, such as slate cisterns, aquaria, &c., and for uniting broken pieces of stone, and filling up metallic joints-take equal parts of red and white lead, and work them into a stiff paste with boiled linseed oil. When used for metal joints, it should be made rather thin, and both pieces of metal, as well as the washer, well smeared with it. This cement slowly hardens, buit becomes ultimately of almost flinty hardness. have before us an aquarium, holding fifteen gallons of water, made of plate-glass, cemented at the angles to mahogany columns with this composition. It has stood without leaking for above three years, in spite of much rough handling and moving about; and the cement is now so hard, that it is difficult to scratch it with a knife. We Cement composed of ox-blood thickened with finely powdered quicklime, is used by coppersmiths, for securing the edges of rivets of copper boilers, and for steam-joints. Another cement for steamjoints is made with borings or turnings of cast-iron mixed with a little sal ainmoniac and flower of sulphur. It should be stirred up with a small quantity of water, just sufficient to moisten it, then rammed into the joint, which should be bolted up as tightly as possible: 5 lbs. of iron borings to 2 oz. of sal ammoniac, and 1 oz. of sulphur, are the proportions recominended. A cement of this kind may be made of 4 lbs. iron borings, 2 lbs. pipeclay, and 1 lb. of powdered earthenware fragments made into a paste with salt and water; or 2 parts litharge in fine powder, 1 part very fine sand, and 1 of quicklime that has slaked spontaneously in a damp place. These should be mixed, and kept from the air, and made into a paste with boiled linseed oil when about to be used. This is a valuable cement for steam-joints, for mending cracks in boilers, ovens, &c. Beale's Patent Beale's Patent Fireproof Cement, for similar purposes, is composed of chalk, 12 parts; lime and salt, each 4 parts; Barnsey sand, 2 parts; iron filings or dust, 1 part; and blue or red clay, 1 part. These are ground and calcined together. Electrical Cement-so called from its use in uniting the cylinders of electrical machines to their axes, and for a variety of similar purposes-is composed of 5 lbs. rosin, 1 lb. each of bees'-wax and red ochre, CEMENTS-CEMETERY. and 4 oz. of plaster of Paris. This is Singer's formula. A cheaper cement of this kind may be made from 14 parts rosin, 2 red ochre, and 1 plaster of Paris. These should be melted together till the frothing ceases, and the composition runs smoothly. This is applicable to a variety of purposes, where a cheap and tolerably adhesive cement is required. It will serve as bottle-wax for sealing the tops of corks; but this is usually prepared from 4 parts rosin with 1 of tallow or suet, and red ochre or other colouring matter added. For mending earthenware and china, &c., a variety of C. are recommended. For ornamental glass or china, which is not subjected to heat or rough usage, Canada balsam that has evaporated until rather hard, is a very useful cement; from its transparency, it makes an almost invisible joint. The surfaces should be slightly warmed, and the balsam brushed over them, after which they should be kept pressed together for a short time. Thick copal or mastic varnish may be used in the same manner. Gum shell-lac, dissolved in spirits of wine in sufficient quantity to form a treacly liquid, forms a stronger cement than the above, but its colour is objectionable for some purposes. The shell-lac may be dissolved in naphtha, but is not equal to that in spirits of wine. The liquid glue sold in the shops is usually prepared in this manner; another kind is made of a mixture of the solutions of shelllac and India rubber. The cement sold in sticks at fairs and in the streets of London by loquacious itinerants, is shell-lac or gum mastic fused and moulded into a convenient form, and is one of the most useful C. when properly applied, by heating the surfaces to be joined just sufficiently to fuse the shell-lac, and then smearing them thinly with it, and pressing them together. If shell-lac is heated much above its fusing-point, it becomes carbonised and rotten, and therefore great care must be used in fusing any composition of which it is an ingredient. The marine glue, a mixture of shell-lac and India rubber, is a remarkable cement, and when applied, as the last, with the precautions just alluded to, is so strong, that glass or china cemented with it, and then dashed on the ground, or otherwise broken again, will give way in any part rather than that cemented. This cement may be purchased ready made. For the mode of preparing it, see GLUE. of very strong glue, adding two very small bits of Cutlers' Cement, used for fixing knives and forks in handles, is made of equal weights of rosin and brick-dust melted together; or, for a superior quality, 4 parts of rosin, 1 of bees-wax, and 1 of brick-dust. Mahogany Cement, used for stopping cracks and holes in mahogany, may be prepared by melting 4 parts of bees-wax with 1 of Indian red, and as much yellow ochre as is found requisite to give the colour. If shell-lac be substituted for the bees-wax, and less red used, a much harder cement is made. For French Cement, Rice Glue, and other light C. for joining paper articles and artificial flowers, see GLUE and PASTE. CE'METERY, from the Greek, may mean any grave-yard, or other place of deposit for the dead; but it has lately acquired a special meaning, applicable to those extensive ornamental burial-grounds which have recently come into use in this and other European countries, as the practice of burying within and around churches was gradually abandoned (see BURIAL). The fine burial-grounds of the Turks, extending over large tracts adorned by cedars and other trees, may have suggested the plan to Europeans. It was first exemplified on a great scale in Paris, in which, as the largest walled town in Europe, the disposal of the dead was long a matter of extreme anxiety and difficulty. There are few considerable towns in Britain near which there is not at least one C., and the legislation mentioned under the head of BURIAL, has rendered their establishment, to a certain extent, a legal necessity. There was at first a natural feeling of regret at the Universal Cement, used for the above and many prospect of deserting places of deposit for the dead other purposes, is prepared as follows: Curdle skim-so hallowed by ancient use and recent associations as milk with rennet or vinegar, press out the whey, and dry the curd at a very gentle heat, but as quickly as possible. When it has become quite dry, grind it in a coffee or pepper mill, and next triturate it in a mortar until reduced to a very fine powder. Mix this powder with th of its weight of new dry quicklime, also in very fine powder, and to every ounce of the mixture add 5 or 6 grains of powdered camphor; triturate the whole well together, and keep it in small wide-mouthed phials well corked. When required, make it into a paste with a little water, and apply it immediately. 10 Cheese Cement is similar in composition and uses. Take two parts of grated cheese and one of quicklime in fine powder; beat these together with white of egg to form a paste, and use immediately. The following is the reputed formula for preparing the Armenian or Diamond Cement, used by the Armenian jewellers for attaching diamonds, &c., without any metallic setting: Dissolve 5 or 6 bits of gummastic, each the size of a large pea, in as much rectified spirit of wine as will suffice to render it liquid; and in another vessel dissolve as much isinglass, previously a little softened in waterthough none of the water must be used-in French brandy, or good rum, as will make a 2-ounce phial the church and the churchyard. In many instances, however, the places thus professedly hallowed were in reality surrounded by degrading and disgusting circumstances. On the other hand, the new places of interment began to develop humanising and elevating influences, in beautiful trees and flowers, natural scenery, and works of monumental art. The new cemeteries are in many instances cheerful open places of recreation, and in them the place of rest for the dead has rather tended to improve than to undermine the health of the living. One of the oldest established and most celebrated of the European cemeteries, is that of Père la Chaise (q. v.), near Paris, the arrangements of which have been generally followed in the cemeteries of London and other English cities; with, however, this distinct difference, that the English cemeteries are divided into two portions-one consecrated for the burials of members of the Established Church, over whose remains the funeral service is read, and one unconsecrated for the burials of dissenters. In the Scottish cemeteries, of which there are good specimens at Edinburgh and Glasgow, no such distinctions exist. In the United States, as at Philadelphia and New York, there are cemeteries equal in point of arrangement to any in Europe. |