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CESTRACION-CETACEA.

quite distinct from the C. W., of which they are really the young; and the name scolex, formerly given to one of these supposed genera, has now become a common name for the young of all C. W. in this stage, as larva is the common name for the young of insects in their first stage after being hatched from the egg. Those scolices which inhabit vertebrate animals very generally become distended with a watery fluid, and in this state were formerly regarded as Hydatids (q. v.); little else, indeed, appearing without very careful examination, but a small bag filled with fluid, the scolex head being formed within the bag, although capable of being everted from it, as the finger of a glove which has been drawn in at the end is turned out. Such is the young of the common tape-worm (Tania solium), formerly known to naturalists as Cysticercus cellulose, and found in the flesh of the pig and of some other animals, and sometimes of man. It is this scolex, existing in great numbers, which produces in the pig the diseased state commonly known as measly; and it is very unsafe even to handle measly pork in a raw state, because a scolex accidentally getting into the mouth, and thence into the stomach, is likely to become a formidable inmate of the intestinal canal. It does not appear that this particular species has the power of multiplying in its scolex state, or the circumstances in which it exists in the flesh of the pig may be unfavourable to its so doing, and the prodigious numbers sometimes existing in a single animal have probably all entered by the mouth in the way already described, the contents of a single proglottis or joint of a tape-worm being perhaps sufficient to account for them; but some scolices, as that called Conurus cerebralis, found in the brain of sheep, and the cause of the disease called staggers-now known to be the scolex of a Taenia of the dog-are proliferous by a sort of pullulation, so that clusters of scolices cover the same parental vesicle. Until, however, the scolex reaches the intestine of an animal suited to it, its propagation is entirely unsexual, and no organs of sex exist; but no sooner is it there, than it begins to develop itself into a a cestoid worm, and to produce androgynous joints, fertile of new embryos, as already

Cysticercus Cellulosæ (magnified): a, the head, much magnified.

described. Thus we have in these creatures an instance, in its relations the most important known, of the recently discovered alternation of generations. SEE GENERATIONS, ALTERNATION OF. The transference of the scolex from its place of growth to that in which it becomes a cestoid worm, usually if not always takes place by the animal which contains it being eaten by that whose intestine is suitable to its perfect development. Each kind of cestoid worm is limited to certain kinds of vertebrate animals, and it has been proved by experiment that if introduced into the stomach of other kinds, the scolices soon die. The only C. W. which infest the human species are Bothriocephalus (q. v.) latus, and Tape-worms (q. v.). See Von Siebold's interesting work on Tape and Cystic Worms, printed for the Sydenham Society (London, 1857.)

CESTRA'CION, a genus of sharks, regarded as constituting a distinct family, Cestraciontida, although not more than two species are known as now existing. It is characterised by having two dorsal fins and one anal, the first dorsal situated over the space between the pectorals and ventrals; a spine forming the front of each dorsal; a short

wide tail, with its upper lobe strongly notched beneath; the mouth at the fore-end of the snout; spout-holes distinctly visible, rather behind the eyes; eyes destitute of nictitating membrane; small gillopenings; and the front of the mouth armed with sharp angular teeth, whilst the margins and inner surface of the jaws are covered with pavement-like teeth, presenting a general continuity of surface, as in skates, and disposed in rounded oblique scrollsthe former evidently adapted to the seizing of food, the latter to the crushing and bruising of it. The Port-Jackson Shark or 'Nurse' (C. Philippi) of the Australian seas, and the Cat Shark of Japan and China (C. Zebra), seem to differ chiefly in the patterns of colour. The Cestraciontide are particularly interesting to geologists; for the oldest fossil sharks belong in great part to this family, of which remains are found even in the Palæozoic strata; they become more numerous in the Carboniferous series; they are very numerous in the Lias and Chalk formations; but there they cease almost entirely, the strata of the Tertiary series scarcely containing any of them;' whilst now the species are reduced, as we have seen, to one or two, and other types of shark have become more prevalent.

CE STRUM, the style or spatula used by the ancients in encaustic painting in wax and ivory. See ENCAUSTIC.

CE'STUI QUE TRUST, a person who possesses the equitable right to deal with property, the There legal estate in which is vested in a trustee. is such a confidence between the cestui que trust and his trustee, that no action at law will lie between them, but they must settle their differences and arrange their disputes in a court of equity. The French phrase, and is so ungainly and ill adapted phrase cestui que trust is a barbarous Norman law to the English idiom, that it is surprising that the good sense of the English legal profession has not long banished it, and substituted some phrase in the English idiom, furnishing an analogous meaning.' -Wharton's Law Lexicon, p 130.

CE'STUS (Gr. kestos, embroidered), a girdle worn by Greek and Roman women close under the breasts, and so distinguished from the zone, worn round the loins. The C. of Venus was covered with alluring representations, so that Juno borrowed it when she desired to win the love of Jupiter.-Cestus—or, more correctly, CESTUS, from the Lat. cædere, to slay-is also the name of the covering for the hands worn by Roman pugilists. It was at first nothing more than a leathern thong or bandage to strengthen the fist; but afterwards it was covered with knots and nails, and loaded with lead and iron, &c., to increase the force of the blow. It was not uncommon for a pugilist armed with the C. to dash out the brains or break the limbs of his antagonist. The Roman pugilist (cæstuarius) was often represented in sculpture.

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Roman Cestus.

CETA'CEA (Gr. ketos, a whale), an order of Mammalia (q. v.) greatly differing in general form and habits from the rest of that class, so as indeed to be popularly reckoned among fishes. The C. have a fish-like form, terminating in a fish-like tail or tail-fin, which, however, is not vertical, as in fishes, but horizontal, and is the great instrument of progression ; being moved by very powerful muscles,

Tail-fin of Whale.

CETACEA.

commonly with an oblique downward and lateral | true C. have molar teeth or grinders like the Manamovement, like that by which a boat is propelled in tida; all the teeth which any of them have are sculling, but sometimes by direct upward and down- conical; but some of the largest are entirely destiward strokes, when greater velocity is requisite. tute of teeth. The females of all of them have the There are no hinder teats situated far back on the abdomen. The forelimbs, and even the limbs of the true C. are mere fins, the slight power pelvis is represented of grasping with them, which the Manatida possess, only by two small having entirely disappeared. The resemblance to rudimentary bones, fishes is increased in many of them by the presence suspended in the soft of a dorsal fin. There is a wonderful provision parts, so that the to enable them to spend some time under water, body tapers gradually before returning again to the surface to breathe-an and uninterruptedly arterial plexus or prodigious intertwining of branches towards the tail. The of artéries, under the pleura and between the ribs, fore-limbs are exclu- on each side of the spine. This being filled with sively, or almost ex- oxygenated blood, after the animal has spent some clusively, adapted for time at the surface breathing, the wants of the swimming, their bones, system are supplied from it, whilst breathing is sushowever, appearing in the skeleton as those of a pended, so that some whales can remain below even hand, placed at the extremity of an arm, of which for an hour. The position of the nostrils is remarkthe bones are much abbreviated and consolidated, able, almost on the very top of the head, so that the with little power of motion except at the shoulder- animal can breathe as soon as the head comes to the joint, and are entirely concealed in the soft parts of surface of the water; and the nostrils are furnished the animal. The head is connected with the body with a valve of singular but very perfect construcwithout any apparent tion, a sort of conical stopper of fibrous substance, neck, and the vertebræ preventing the ingress of water even under the of the neck are partly pressure of the greatest depths. The nostrils appear ankylosed or soldered to be little used for the purpose of smelling, the sense together. The skin is of smell being one which these animals either do not naked, having no gene-possess at all, or in a very imperfect degree; but ral covering of hair, they are much used, not only for breathing, but also although some of the for spouting, or the ejection of water from the mouth, species possess con- for which reason they are generally called blow-holes spicuous whiskers. The Bones of Fore-limb of Whale. C. agree with quadrupeds, notwithstanding the great differences already indicated, in the most important parts of their organisation. They are viviparous, and suckle their young, for which they exhibit great affection; they are also warm-blooded, breathe by lungs, and not by gills, and come to the surface of the water for the purpose of inhaling air. An approach to their fish-like form is to be seen in Seals (q. v.) and other Phocida (q. v.); in which, however, the hinder limbs are largely, although peculiarly developed, whilst the fish-like tail-fin is wanting; the skin has a covering of hair; and the head and fore-limbs more resemble those of ordinary quadrupeds.

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the water being forced through them by the compression of two large pouches or reservoirs which are situated beneath them. This compression is accomplished by an action similar to that of swallowing; the throat, however, not being open, but closed. The height to which the water is thrown into the air is extraordinary, and the spouting of the whale is one of those wonders of the ocean never to be forgotten by those who have seen it.

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A peculiarity in the skin of the true C. adapts
them for their manner of life. The skin is extremely
thick, the inner part of it consisting of elastic fibres
interlacing each other in every direction, the inter-
stices of which are filled with oil, forming the sub-
stance usually called blubber. The oil deposited in
this unusual situation, not only serves the ordinary

warm, which to a warm-blooded animal, continually
surrounded with water, is of great importance;
whilst the elasticity of this extraordinary skin
affords protection in the great depths to which some
of the whales descend, and in which the pressure
must sometimes amount to a ton on every square
inch.

The C are usually divided into two sections-purposes of fat, but that also of keeping the body the Herbivorous and the Ordinary C.; but the former, constituting the family of Manatidæ (q. v.), have recently, by some systematic naturalists, been rejected from this order altogether, and associated with the Pachydermata. They differ very widely from the ordinary or true C., not only in their adaptation for the use of vegetable instead of animal food, which appears both in their dentition and in their digestive apparatus, but also in their pectoral instead of abdominal teats, and in their want of blow-holes and of any provision for retiring to great depths of the ocean, and remaining there for a considerable time, without returning to the surface

to breathe.

The ordinary or true C. are divided into the families of Delphinidae (Dolphin, Porpoise, Beluga, Narwhal, &c.), Platanistidæ, fresh water Dolphins, etc. Physeteride (Cacholot, or Spermaceti Whale, etc.) and Balanide (Greenland Whale, Rorqual, &c.), the distinguishing characters of which are given under separate heads. They all feed on animal food, some of them pursuing and devouring fishes; others, and these the largest, subsisting chiefly on smaller prey, mollusks, small crustaceans, and even zoophytes, which they strain out of the water by a peculiar apparatus in their mouths. None of the

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The number of known species of C. is not great, but their natural history has as yet been very imperfectly studied. All of them are large animals, some of them by far the largest that now exist. Almost all of them-both herbivorous and ordinary-are marine, but some of the smaller species ascend large rivers to a great distance from the sea; and one, of the family Delphinidæ, belongs exclusively to fresh waters, being found only in the upper tributaries of the Amazon and the elevated lakes of Peru.

Fossil Cetacea have been hitherto discovered only in the tertiary formation. Their remains represent species not only belonging to each of the recent families of true C., but have supplied materials for forming a new family intermediate between the true whales and the herbivorous cetacea. These fossils were originally described as reptiles; but they have been satisfactorily shewn to be carnivorous C. by Owen, who, from their remarkable conjugate

CETOTOLITES-CEYLON.

teeth, has given the family the name of Zeuglodonta. Moors, who held it until 1415, when it was captured In all, six or seven species have been described be- by the Portuguese. It was annexed, with Portugal, longing to this family, from the Eocene and Miocene to the crown of Spain in 1580, and was the only beds of Europe and America. The Platanistidæ ap- place on the African coast retained by Spain when pear first in the Miocene strata, and continue through Portugal was restored to its independence in 1640. the newer beds. Twelve species have been found in CEVADI'LLA. See SABADILLA. the Miocenes of North America, one of which (Rhabdosteus sp.) had a defensive muzzle like a sword-fish. Of Physeteride, three species have been noticed in Pleiocene and Pleistocene strata, belonging to the recent genus Physeter. Fossil Balonida occur in the Miocene and newer beds. Only four species have been found in Europe, but seven in Eastern North America, some of them of great size. A nearly complete skeleton of the Eschrichtius cephalus was found in Maryland, and the skull of Mesoteras kerrianus, from North Carolina, is 18 feet in length.

CETOTOLITES, a name given by Owen to fossil cetacean teeth and ear-bones, which occur in great abundance in the Red Crag of Suffolk, a member of the Pleiocene period. They are rubbed and water-worn, and have evidently been washed out of some earlier strata, which remain yet unrecognised. The extent of these earlier strata must have been very great, seeing that the remains now extend over a large district in Essex and Suffolk, and attain a thickness, in some places, of not less than 40 feet. Professor Henslow, in 1843, drew the attention of agricultural chemists to this deposit, as a source of materials for manure, and since then superphosphate manures have been manufactured from it to the value of many thousand pounds annually; a striking example of the valuable practical results which frequently flow from a purely scientific discovery.

CETRA'RO, a town of Naples, in the province of Calabria Citra, situated on the Mediterranean, 24 miles north-west of Cosenza. It has anchovy fisheries, and a population of about 6000.

CETTE, a seaport town of France, in the department of Hérault, is built on a neck of land between the lagoon of Thau and the Mediterranean, in lat. 43° 24′ N., long. 3° 42′ E. The town, which is entered by a causeway raised above the Thau lagoon, and a bridge of 52 arches, is fortified, and the harbour is defended by a citadel and forts. The space enclosed by the piers and breakwater forming the harbour is about 30 acres, and has a depth of from 16 to 19 feet. A broad deep canal, lined with excellent quays, connects the port with the Lake of Thau, and so with the Canal du Midi and the Rhone, thus giving to C. an extensive inland traffic; it has likewise an active foreign commerce. The principal trade is in wine, brandy, salt, dyestuffs, perfumery, and verdigris. Other chief imports are wool, cotton, grain, oil, and colonial produce. C. has ship-building yards, and fisheries of oysters and anchovies. Pop. 19,000.

CEU'TA, a town belonging to Spain, situated in the kingdom of Fez, on the north coast of Africa, and opposite to Gibraltar, in lat. 35° 54' N., and long. 5° 16' W. It is strongly fortified, and defended by a citadel and forts erected on Mount Hacho, the ancient Abyla, or South Pillar of Hercules. It is the most important of the four Spanish presidios, or convict establishments, on this coast. The harbour is small, and not very safe; and the population, stated at 8000 or 10,000, is composed of Spaniards, Moors, Negroes, Mulattoes, and Jews, mostly very poor, and employed in trade and fisheries. Many of the Spaniards living here are state-prisoners, and even the garrison is partly manned by convicts. C., formerly called Septa or Septum, was taken from the Vandals in 534 by Justinian, who fortified the place anew. In 618, it fell into the hands of the Western Goths; afterwards it was taken by the

CEVENNES (ancient Cebenna), the chief mounWith its tain-range in the south of France. between the river-systems of the Rhone and the continuations and offsets, it forms the water-shed Garonne. Its general direction is from north-east to south-west, commencing at the southern extremity of the Lyonnais mountains, and extending under different local names as far as the Canal du Midi, which divides it from the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. The central mass of the C. lies in the departments Lozère and Ardèche, Mont Lozère reaching an elevation of 4884 feet, and Mont Mézen (the culminating point of the chain) an elevation of 5794 feet. The average height is from 3000 to 4000 feet. Their masses consist chiefly of amphibolic rocks, grauwacke, and limestone, covered with tertiary formations, which in many places are interrupted by volcanic rocks.

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The C. has been celebrated as the arena of religious warfare. As early as the 12th c., the several sects known by the names, the Poor of Lyon,' the Albigenses (q. v.), and the Waldenses (q. v.), were known and persecuted in this district. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. in 1685, a series of cruel persecutions of the Protestants in the C. began, especially in 1697, after the Peace of Ryswick. 'Dragonnades' (q. v.) were employed to enforce the doctrines of the monks sent as missionaries into the heretical district. All persons suspected of Protestantism met with the most harsh and cruel treatment. of the inhabitants emigrated, others fled into the fastnesses of the mountains. Driven to desperation, the persecuted people at length rose to arms, and the murder of the Abbé du Chaila, who was at the head of the dragonnades, gave the signal of a general insurrection in 1702. The insurgent peasants were styled Camisards-possibly from camise, a smock worn by the peasantry. Headed by bold leaders, the most famous of whom were Cavalier and Roland, they defeated the troops sent against them by Louis again and again, until that king thought the insurrection of sufficient importance to require the presence of the distinbut he was guished general, Marshal Villars; recalled before the revolt had been put down, and it was left to the Duke of Berwick to extinguish it in blood; the contest terminating in an entire desolation of the province, and the destruction or banishment of a great portion of the inhabitants. The embers of religious hatred still remained glimmering through the following century, and, after the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815, burst out into flames in the terrible persecution of the out into flames in the terrible persecution of the Protestants in Nîmes (q. v.) and other places in des Cevennes, ou de la Guerre des Camisards (Villefranche, 1760), and Schulz's Geschichte der Camisarden (Weimar, 1790).

the south of France. See Histoire des Troubles

CEYLANITE. See SPinel.

CEYLON (the Taprobane of the Greeks and Romans, and the Serendib of the Arabian Nights), a valuable island and British colony in the Indian Ocean, to the south-east of the peninsula of Hindustan, from which it is separated by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk's Strait. Recent observations have shewn its true place to be between 5° 55' and 9° 51′ N. lat., and 79° 42′ and 81° 55′ E. long. Extreme length from north to south, from Point

CEYLON.

Palmyra to Dondera Head, 266 miles; greatest width, from Colombo to Sangemankande, 140 miles. Area, including dependent islands, 24,454 square miles.

Physical Features.-In natural scenery, C. can vie with any part of the world; and as it rises from the ocean, clothed with the rich luxuriance of a tropical vegetation, it seems to the voyager like some enchanted island of Eastern story. Its hills, 'draped with forests of perennial green,' tower grandly from height to height, till they are lost in clouds and mist. Near at hand, a sea of sapphire blue dashes against the battlemented rocks that occur at isolated points, and the yellow strands are shaded by groves of noble palms. In shape, C. resembles a pear, but its inhabitants more poetically compare it to one of their elongated pearls. Undulating plains cover about four parts of the island, and the fifth is occupied by the mountain-zone of the central south, which has an elevation of from 6000 | to 8000 feet above the sea-level. Pedrotallagalla, the highest mountain in the range, attains the height of 8280 feet; the celebrated mountain of Adam's Peak, 7420 feet; and the table-land of Neuera Ellia, 6210 feet.

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Geology. The mountain system is mainly composed of metamorphic rocks, chiefly gneiss, frequently broken up by intruded granite With the exception of some local beds of dolomitic limestone, the gneiss is everywhere the surface rock, and the soil is composed of its disintegrated materials. No fossils, as was to be expected, have been noticed in C., if we except the semi-fossil remains of mollusca, crustacea, and corals, belonging to living species, which occur in the rude breccias of the north in the neighbourhood of the sea. The northern part of the island is rising, and there also the land is making encroachments on the sea from another agency. The immense masses of corals continually increasing, retain the débris brought from the Indian continent by the currents of the sea, and thus form a flat, ever-increasing madrepore plain.

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Harbours.-Point de Galle (q. v.) and Trincomalee (q. v.) are the two harbours of Ceylon. The former is small and dangerous, but the latter is unsurpassed as a safe and commodious port. The variation of the tides is very trifling; the rise and fall not generally exceeding 18 to 24 inches, with a third of increase at spring-tides.

In climate, C. has a great advantage over the mainland of India, and as an island, enjoys a more equable temperature. The average for the year in Colombo (q. v.) is 80° in ordinary seasons. April is the hottest month; and in May the south-west monsoon commences amid a deluge of rain, and continues the prevailing wind till October, when the north-east monsoon sets in: 80 inches is the average annual fall of rain, though in an exceptional year, 120 inches have been registered. The beautiful tableland of Neuera Ellia was first visited by Europeans in 1826, and is now used as a sanitarium. the thermometer in the shade never rises above 70o, while the average is 62°; the nights are cool and refreshing. The north of the island, including the peninsula of Jaffna, the plains of Neuera Kalawa, and the Wanny, may be reckoned as a third climatic division. Here the annual fall of rain does not exceed 30 inches, and irrigation is largely employed in agriculture.

Here

Flora. The general botanical features of C., especially of the lowlands, are nearly identical with those of Southern India and the Deccan, although it possesses a few genera of plants not to be found in those regions. Its phænogamic plants are limited to about 3000. The beautiful ixoras, erythrinas, buteas, Jonesias, and other flowering shrubs bloom in the forests. At an elevation of 6500 feet, the acanthaceæ cover large tracts of ground, and he tree-fern reaches the height of 20 feet. On the highest ground, rhododendrons attain to the size of timber-trees. The Coral-tree (Eurythrina Indica), the Murutu (Lagerstræmia Regina), and the Jonesia asoce are amongst the most magnificent of the flowering trees. The fig tribe are planted in the vicinity Of metals and minerals, iron, in the form of a of the temples. In the forests, climbing-plants and carbonate, can be obtained in great quantities, and epiphytes of prodigious size and striking appearance of such purity as to resemble silver. Tin is found cover the trees with a mass of parasitical foliage of in the alluvium at the base of the mountains, and on extraordinary growth. The Palmaccæ are very conthe heights the rare metal tellurium has been disco-spicuous in the vegetation of C., although not more vered. Nickel and cobalt are scarce. Anthracite than 10 or 12 species are indigenous: the cocca-palm and rich veins of plumbago exist on the southern range of hills. The gems of C. have been celebrated from time immemorial, and they are most plentiful in the alluvial plains at the foot of the hills of Saffragam. Sapphires, rubies, the oriental topaz, gar-, nets, amethysts, cinnamon stone, and cat's-eye, are the principal gems and precious stones of the island. The most valuable is the sapphire'; and one of these, found in the year 1853, was worth more than £4000. The value of the precious stones annually found in the island has been estimated at £10,000. The pearl-fishery in the Gulf of Manaar has long been Fauna.-A knowledge of the fauna of C. has been celebrated, and the revenue derived from it by gov-greatly advanced by the labours of Drs. Templeton ernment for the year ending 31st December, 1857, was £20,550, 15s. 6d. Eighty-seven seconds is about the longest time the best divers can remain under water, and 13 fathoms is the greatest depth to which they descend.

Rivers-The Rivers. The most important river in C. is the Mahawelli-ganga. It has its source in the vicinity of Adam's Peak, and after draining more than 4000 square miles, it separates into several branches, and enters the ocean near Trincomalee. The south side of the island is watered by ten rivers of considerable size, which flow into the sea between Point de Galle and Manaar. On the east coast, the rivers are smaller, but still more numerous, and many others traverse the northern and eastern provinces.

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of which it is estimated there are not less than 20 millions of trees-the taliput, the palmyra—which forms extensive forests in the north of the islandand the jaggery palm, are the most noteworthy. Of timber-trees, 90 species are known, and amongst these the satin-wood holds the first rank. The flora of the highlands, above 2000 feet, and up to 6000 or 7000, though much resembling that of the Neilgherries, has a marked affinity to the vegetation of the highlands of Malacca and Java, especially the

latter.

and Kelaart and Mr. Edgar Layard. Quadrumanous animals are represented by the Loris gracilis, and five species of monkeys. Sixteen species of the Cheiroptera or bat tribe exist in C.; and what is very remarkable, many of these rival the birds in the bril liancy of their colours. The Pteropus Edwardsii (the flying-fox of Europeans) measures from 4 to 5 feet from tip to tip of its extended wings. Of the larger Carnivora, the bear and Leopard; and of the smaller, the palm-cat and the glossy genette (the civet of Europeans) may be mentioned. The dreaded tiger of India, the cheeta, the wolf, and the hyæna, are happily not met with in Ceylon. Deer, buffaloes, and the humped ox of India are amongst the Ru minantia; the little musk-deer (Moschus meminna)

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CEYLON.

is less than two feet in length. The Pachydermata manner of living unaltered for more than 2000 are represented by the elephant and the wild boar; years. They appear to be without the instinct of the former, which is for the most part tuskless, is worship, and have no knowledge of a God. The emphatically lord of the forests of Ceylon. The tribe is divided into the Rock Veddahs and the most remarkable of the Cetacea is the digong. Tillage Veddahs. The former hide themselves in Whales are captured off the coast. 320 species of the jungle, live by the chase, and sleep in trees Birds have been ascertained by Drs. Templeton and or caves. They use fire to cook their meat, and Kelaart and Mr. Layard. The song of the robin and their greatest gastronomic treats are the iguana long-tailed thrush, and the flute-like voice if the lizard and roasted monkey. Their language-if oriole, are heard over the whole mountain zone, and the few words they make use of can be called by far down into the neighbouring plains. Eagles, the that name-is a dialect of the Singhalese. The beautiful peregrine falcon, owls, swallows, king- Village Veddahs locate themselves in the vicinity fishers, sun-birds, bulbuls, crows, parroquets, pigeons, of the European settlements, on the eastern coast, pea-fowl, jungle-fowl, and many others of the fea- living in rude huts of mud and bark, and are thered tribe might be mentioned did space permit. hardly more civilised than their brethren of the Myriads of aquatic birds and waders, amongst which jungles. The exertions of government to reclaim the flamingo is conspicuous, cover the lakes and this harmless but degraded people have in some lagoons. The crocodile is the largest reptile in the degree succeeded, and a promising colony has been island; tortoises and lizards are also found. There formed. are a few species of venomous snakes, and of these the ticpolonga and the cobra da capello are the most deadly.

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Inhabitants.-The Singhalese, the most numerous of the natives of C., are the descendants of those colonists from the valley of the Ganges, who first settled in the island 543 B. C. In their customs, costume, and general appearance, they have remained unchanged since the days of Ptolemy. The dress of the men, who have delicate features and slender limbs, is singularly effeminate, and consists of a comboy or waist-cloth, very much resembling a petticoat; their long hair, turned back from the forehead, is confined with combs, and earrings are worn by way of ornament. The women, in addition to the comboy, cover the upper part of the figure with a white muslin jacket, and adorn themselves with necklaces, bangles, rings, and jewellery. The Singhalese are false and cowardly, but manifest a strong affection for their relatives, and a reverence for old age. Polyandry still lingers in the interior of C., and was formerly universal; it is now, however, chiefly confined to the wealthier classes, amongst whom one woman has often three or four husbands. The Kandyans, or Highlanders, are a more sturdy race, and maintained their independence for three centuries after the conquest of the low country by European settlers. The Malabars, or Tamils, have sprung from those early invaders of C., who from time to time swept across from Southern Hindustan, and contended with the Singhalese kings for the sovereignty of the island. They have formed the chief population of Jaffna for full 2000 years, and constitutionally excel the Singhalese and Kandyans. The Moormen, who are the most energetic and intelligent of the native communities, are met with in every province as enterprising traders. They are a very distinct race from the Singhalese, but have no tradition of their origin. Europeans generally believe them to be of Arab descent, but Tennent is of opinion that 'they may be a remnant of the Persians, by whom the island was frequented in the fourth and fifth centuries.'

The 'burghers' of C. are a people of European descent, who have become naturalised. Those of Portuguese extraction hold the lowest place, and are mostly tradesmen and artisans; but the Dutch burghers frequently fill responsible posts, and are employed in the government offices.

Besides the races already alluded to, there is a remarkable tribe of outcasts-the Veddahs-hardly removed from the wild animals of the forest, and believed to be descended from the Yakkhos, the aboriginal inhabitants of the country. They occupy a district in the eastern part of the island, and have there preserved their ancient customs and 738

The native population of C. in 1867 was 2,078,294. The European and other inhabitants, including the military, amount to about 18,000. Sir J. E. Tennent is of opinion that C., when in the height of its prosperity, must have been ten times as densely populated as at the present day.

Religion.-The Singhalese are devoted to Buddhism (q. v.), which is the prevailing religion of the island. It does not exist, however, in that state of purity in which it is still found in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Its sacred books are identical with those of Burmah and Siam, and both record the doctrines of Gautama in the Pali language; the deviations are in matters of practice. The Malabar kings adulterated Buddhism to a considerable extent with Brahmanism, introducing the worship of Hindu deities into the Buddhist temples, and this continues more or less to be the case. More than once have the Buddhists of C. sought to restore the purity of their faith-at one time sending deputies to Siam, at another to Burmah, with this object in view. The Burman or Amarapura sect have long been the reformers of Singhalese Buddhism, and maintain no very friendly relations with the party, who, supported by the priests of Siam, acknowledge the civil power in matters of religion, sanction the worship of Hindu deities and the employment of the priesthood in secular occupations, uphold caste, and restrict the sacred books. Caste was acknowledged by the Singhalese prior to the introduction of Buddhism, which in principle is opposed to it; but so firmly was it rooted, that it still endures, though more as a social than a sacred institution. Gautama Buddha is said to have visited C. three different times to preach his doctrine, and his Sri-pada, or sacred footstep, on the summit of Adam's Peak (q. v.), still commands the homage of the faithful. Buddhism was not, however, permanently introduced into C. till 367 B. C., when Mahindo, obtaining the support of the king, established it as the national faith. The influence of the priests gradually increased, and, by the piety of the Singhalese kings, monasteries were richly endowed; for though the Buddhist monk is individually forbidden to possess goods, a community may own property to any extent; and it is a remarkable fact that, at the present day, no less than one-third of the cultivated land of the island is computed to belong to the priesthood, and is exempt from taxation. The priests of C. are divided into two orders-the Samanaros, and those who, after a time of probation, receive the higher grade of Upasampada. The fraternity are not raised by education above their countrymen, and the respect paid them is directed more to the dress than to the person of the individual. Any member is at liberty to lay aside his ascetic character, and return to a secular

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