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CEYLON.

life. The most celebrated Buddhistic relic in C. is the Dalada, or sacred tooth of Gautama, at Kandy, which is guarded with jealous care, and preserved in an elegant shrine; but it is well known that the original relic was destroyed by the Portuguese, and the present substitute is a piece of discoloured ivory, bearing no resemblance to a human tooth. In all Buddhist countries, the sacred buildings present, with certain modifications, the same general character (see articles BUDDHISM, BURMAH, &c.); and in C. we find the three classes represented by the dagoba, or relic-shrine (datu, a relic, and gabbhan, a shrine), the temple proper, and the vihara or monastery. The labour bestowed on these edifices in the early ages of the Singhalese monarchy is truly astonishing.

This

the altar to the top of the head. The cave-temple of Dambool was built 100 B. C., and is the most cele' rated in the island. The bell-shaped tapering dago as of C., as relic shrines, answer to the pagodas of Burmah-which they very much resemble-and the topes of Afghanistan. The ruins of the Jaytawanarama dagoba still reach the height of 249 feet ; its di meter is 360 feet; and from base to pinnacle it is covered with trees of the largest size. enormous structure contains 20 millions of cubical feet; and Sir J. E. Tennent concludes that to erect such a mass of masonry, even in the present day, would occupy 500 bricklayers from six to seven years,' at the cost of a million sterling. The Ambustella of Mihintala is another remarkable dagoba. A very famous object in connection with Buddhism in C. is the sacred Bo-tree of Anarajapoora (Peepul, Ficus religiosa), which was planted there 288 years P. C., and is by far the oldest tree in the world of which an authentic history exists. See BO-TREE. Amongst the antiquities of C. must be mentioned those wonderful monuments of the former greatness of the Singhalese people-the ruined tanks; with

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The Gal-wihara at Pollanarrua.

In the north of the island, ruined cities-buried for ages in the depths of the forest-have been discovered, revealing monuments that in dimensions may almost compare with the pyramids of Egypt. The most remarkable of these vestiges of an early civilization is Pollanarrun, the ancient capital of C.; and here is the celebrated Gal-wihara, a rock-hewn temple, supposed to be the only example in Ceylon of an attempt to fashion an architectural design out of the rock, after the manner of the cave-temples of Ajunta and Ellora.' The reclining figure of Gautama on the right (see cut, which with the other illustra

Entrance to the Temple of Dambool.

tions are reduced from Sir J. E. Tennent's Ceylon) is 45 feet in length; the upright one measures 23 feet; and the sitting image on the left is 16 feet from

The Ambustella Dagoba, Mihintala.

which almost nothing of a similar kind, whether ancient or modern, can be compared: 30 colossal reservoirs, and about 700 smaller tanks, still exist, though for the most part in ruins. The restoration of these magnificent works of irrigation has recently been begun. Brahmanism or Hinduism (q. v.) is the faith of the Tamils or Malabars, but the Moormen are Mohammedans, After the expulsion of the Dutch Christians, Protestant missions to the natives of C. were commenced by the Baptists in 1813. The Wesleyan Methodists followed in 1814, the Americans in 1816, the Church of England in 1818, and Christian instruction has made some progress amongst the native populations. Of these the peasantry of the Kandyan hills have proved the least accessible to its influence. Schools, collegiate institutions, and female seminaries, under the direction of the missionaries, are in successful operation.

The government of C. is administered by a governor appointed by the crown, and he is assisted by a cabinet council, composed of his principal officers. There is also a legislative council, to which all measures are submitted; but its decisions. are still subject to the veto of the governor. The revenue for the year ending 31st December, 1868, amounted to £925,265, and the expenditure for the same time amounted to quite £974,950. C. possesses that great test of a prosperous colonyan increasing revenue. | In the year 1859 it amounted to £747,000. The colony made great

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CEYLON.

progress under the able administration of Sir H. | usurpation of the Malabars (237 B. C.), foreign Ward. An objectionable tax, however, on the mercenaries from the Coromandel coast, to whom import of grain, and also on its home cultivation, the native sovereigns bad entrusted the defence still exists. of the island. Several Malabar invasions are

The following official returns are taken from the government blue book for 1869. Total values of the imports and exports of C. in 1868 were respectively, £4,403,177 and £3,786,722. The commercial intercourse of Ceylon with the United Kingdom is shown in the following tabular statement:

Imports and Exports.-The imports are miscel- chronicled in the history of C., and these foreigners laneous; the principal exports consist of coffee, coir | long contended with the native princes for supreme in fibre and manufactured, cinnamon, cocoa-nuts, authority. Passing on to 1071 A. D., a native cocoa-nut oil—of which, in 1858, the enormous dynasty was then re-established in the person of quantity of 1,767,413 gallons, valued at £212,184, Wijayo Bahu, which, for 100 years, delivered the were exported-areca-nuts, cardamons, bêche-de-mer, country from the dominion of the Malabars. Prakarrow-root, curry stuffs, ghee, dried and salted fish, rama Bahu commenced a reign, in 1153, the most hides, elephants, plumbago, pearls, etc. Cocoa nut renowned in the records of Ceylon. He devoted oil to the value of £283,518, cinnamon valued at himself to religion and agriculture, and besides many #135,657, ar: coffee valued at £2,986,100 were ex- notable religious edifices, he caused no less than ported in 1868. The export of coffee from 1865 to 1470 tanks to be constructed, subsequently known 1868 has been of the average value of £2,400,000. as the 'seas of Prakrama.' Thirty years after the Pearls to the value of £25,525 were exported in death of this monarch, the Malabars landed with 1859. a large army, and speedily conquered the whole island. In 1235, a native dynasty recovered a part of the kingdom. During the reign of Dharma Prakrama IX. the Portuguese first visited C., 1505; but it was in 1517 that they first formed a permanent settlement at Colombo for trading purposes. Their encroachments soon raised the patriotic Kandyans, and it is a remarkable fact, that though at the first visit of the Portuguese in 1505 they were even ignorant of the use of gunpowder, they, after a while, excelled their enemies as musketeers, and were finally able to bring 20,000 stand of arms to bear against them. Amity, commerce, and religion,' was the Portuguese motto; but their rule in C. is a sad story of rapacity, bigotry, and cruelty. They were at last driven from the island by the Dutch in 1658, after a contest of twenty years, when, as Sir J. E. Tennant remarks, the fanatical zeal of the Roman Catholic sovereign for the propagation of the faith, was replaced by the earnest toil of the Dutch traders to intrench their trading monopolies; and the almost chivalrous energy with which the soldiers of Portugal resisted the attacks of the native princes, was exchanged for the subdued humbleness with which the merchants of Holland endured the insults and outrages perpetrated by the tyrants of Kandy upon their envoys and officers.' But the purely military tenure of the Dutch was destined to give place to the colonisation of the British. It was during the great European war succeeding the French Revolution, that the English gained possession of the island. On the 1st August 1795, an expedition under Colonel James Stuart landed at Trincomalee, which was speedily captured, and finally the garrison of Colombo surrendered on the 16th February 1796. By this capitulation, all the Dutch settlements and strongholds in C. were ceded to the English; though the island was not formally annexed to the British crown till the Peace of Amiens, 27th March 1802. The native sovereigns, however, continued in the possession of their mountain territory; but at length the Kandyan king, Wikrama Raja Singha, after perpetrating the most frightful atrocities on his own people, seized and murdered certain native merchants, British subjects, trading to Kandy. War followed, January 1815; Kandy was taken, and the tyrant sent a captive to the fortress of Vellore. On the 24 March 1815, a treaty was concluded with the native chiefs, by which the king was formally deposed, and his territories annexed to the British crown.

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The number of ships entered at ports in C. in the year 1859 were 2960, of which 292 were from the United Kingdom, and 2573 colonial; total tonnage, 338,731. The number of ships cleared at ports in C. for the same year were 2962, of which 291 were from the United Kingdom, and 2578 colonial; total tonnage, 392,661. To the ancient world C. was famous as a place of traffic. Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Arabians traded to its ports, and many particulars, such as geographical position and natural productions, seem to identify Point de Galle with the Tarshish of the Hebrew historians.

The history of C., of which the limits of this article will only allow the briefest possible outline, may be conveniently divided into ancient and modern, and the latter into the Portuguese, Dutch, and British periods.

The records of its early history came to light in 1826, and Mr. Turnour, devoting himself to their study, composed an Epitome of the History of C., from the year 543 B. c. to 1798 A. D.; and he records the reigns of 165 kings, who reigned during this space of 2311 years. The most famous of the Singhalese books is the Mahawanso, a metrical chronicle, in the Pali language, which gives an account of the island during the above 23 centuries. The story begins with the invasion of Wijayo (543 B. C.), son of a petty Indian sovereign in the country watered by the Ganges. He subdued the Yakkhos, the aboriginal inhabitants; married a daughter of one of the native chiefs, whom he subsequently repudiated for an Indian princess; and founded a dynasty that held undivided sovereignty in C. for nearly eight centuries. He bestowed on his kingdom his patrimonial name of Sihala (whence Singhalese, Ceylon), and promoted the settlement of colonists Since then, the island has made rapid strides in from the mainland. In the reign of king Deveni- material prosperity. The mountain-forests have piatissa (307 B. C.), Buddhism was established as been replaced by plantations of coffee, of which, in the national religion, and his reign was further the year 1857, there were 403 under cultivation, remarkable by the planting of the sacred Bo-tree, giving an average crop of 347,100 cwt. per annum. 288 B C.; and now commenced the erection of Many important public works have been completed, those stupendous buildings already noticed. The and others are still in progress. A magnificent next important epoch in Singhalese history is the mountain-road now connects Colombo wish Kandy.

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CEYX-CHAFFINCH.

A legislative council has been formed, and a charter incrustations of the soft portions of the dorsal and of justice promulgated; while trading monopolies, anal fins, and often of the spinous parts also, with slavery, and religious disqualifications have been scales, the fins appearing to taper gradually out of entirely abolished.--See Ceylon, Physical, Historical, the thickness of the body, which is in general reand Topographical, &c., by Sir James Emerson Ten-markably compressed, so that, without dissection, it nent (Lond. 1859); a very complete and learned is impossible to tell where they begin. The scales are work on the island, written in popular and eloquent strongly ctenoid (q. v.). The typical genus Chaetodon, language; and Christianity in Ceylon, by the same

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author (Lond. 1850).

CEYX. See KINGFISHER.

CEZI'MBRA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, on a bay of the Atlantic, about 18 miles south of Lisbon. Here the Moorish king of Badajoz, who had advanced to succour the place, was defeated in 1165 by Affonso Henriques. C. has active fisheries, and a population of 5000.

CHA'CMA. See BABOON.

CHA'DDA. See BENUWE,

CHADWICK,. EDWIN, a distinguished social and sanitary reformer of the present day, was born in the vicinity of Manchester, 24th January, 1801. He studied law, but early devoting his attention to questions of social, sanitary, and political science, he attracted the notice of Lord Grey's government, by whom he was appointed an assistant-commissioner, to inquire into the operation of the poor-laws in England and Wales. His report, published with others in 1833, commanded most attention, being remarkable alike for the wide and searching character of its investigations, the happiness of its illustrations, and the convincing proofs it furnished as to the necessity of reform in the system of administration. Its merit was recognized by those who had the power to reward him; and on the organisation of the new Poor-law Board, C. was appointed secretary. In connection with this Board, and the General Board of Health, C. for twenty years was energetic in the origination and administration of remedial measures relative to the distribution of poor-law funds and to the sanitary condition of the country. And not content with investigating these great subjects, his indefatigable mind sought further exercise in inquiring into the constitution of the constabulary force, with a view to the better prevention of offences and the readier detection of criminals. On a change being made in the Board of Health in 1854, C. retired with a pension. He has since taken great interest in promoting competitive examinations for government offices; and indeed in almost all questions of social economy, being an active member of the Association for the Promotion of Social Science. CHÆRONEI'A, a city of Boeotia, in ancient Greece, near the Cephissus, on the borders of Phocis. It is celebrated on account of several important battles fought in the neighbourhood. In 447 B. C., the Boeotians here obtained a victory over the Athenians; and in 338 B. C., Philip of Macedon signally defeated the united forces of the Athenians and Boeotians, and so crushed the liberties of Greece. A mound of earth, about a mile from the modern village of Kapurna, which occupies the site of the old city, still marks the place where the Thebans who fell in the battle were buried; and a magnificent lion, which Colonel Mure pronounced to be the most interesting sepulchral monument in Greece,' was excavated from this tumulus some years ago. At C., also, 86 B. C., Sulla defeated the generals of Mithridates. Plutarch was a native of this town. A few ancient remains yet exist.

CHETODO'NTIDÆ, a family of acanthopterous fishes, nearly corresponding to the genus Chaetodon (Gr. hair-tooth) of Linnæus; and also named SQUAMIPENNES (Lat. Scaly-finned), because of the most distinctive character of the family, the

Chatodon.

and those most nearly allied to it, have hair-like teeth, so that their jaws resemble brushes; some fishes of the family, however, have trenchant teeth on the jaws, and some, as Brama (q. v.), have cardlike teeth both on the jaws and palate. Most of the C. are tropical; only one species, Brama Raii, is ever found in the British seas. They generally frequent rocky shores. Their colours are often extremely gay, and usually disposed rather in stripes or bands than in spots. The eye of man receives the greater pleasure from their contemplation, in that, being of moderate or small size, and haunting habitually the coral basins of the transparent tropical seas, they disport themselves in the beams of a vertical sun, as if desirous of exhibiting their splendid liveries to the greatest advantage in the blaze of day.' Many singularities of form occur in this family, as the long slender snout of the Chelmons, the whip-thong-like prolongation of some of the rays of the dorsal fins in Heniochus and Zanclus, the wing-like dorsal and anal fins of Platax, the sharp recurved horns of the Buffalo-fish (Taurichthys), &c. To this family belong the Archer-fishes (q. v.), whose singular habits have been already noticed.-The flesh of most of the C. is of very fine flavour.

CHA'FER, a common name of those beetles or coleopterous insects, which either in the perfect or larva state, are destructive to plants; particularly those which devour the wood, bark, or roots of trees. From these, however, it is sometimes extended to some coleopterous insects which have no such habit. The word C. is seldom used alone, but generally as part of a name, with some prefix; thus, we have Cock-chafer, Rose-chafer, Bark-chafer, &c.

CHA'FF-CUTTER, a name commonly given to an implement now much used by farmers for cutting hay and straw into half-inch lengths. The advantage of this consists not so much in facilitating mastication or digestion, as in preventing animals from wasting their food. No small amount of mechanical ingenuity has been applied to the construction of chaff-cutters, the simplest and oldest kinds of which are mere hand-machines, with a single large knife, the hay or straw being pushed forward in a trough or box, whilst others are driven by horse, steam, or water-power, and are not a little complicated.

CHAFFINCH (Fringilla cælebs), one of the most common British birds, a species of Finch (q. v.), and probably that to which the name Finch, now so extended in its signification, originally belonged; fink, the German form of the name, and pink and twink, English provincial forms still appropriated to

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