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CHAGRES CHALCEDON.

the C., having some resemblance of sound to its common call-note. The whole length of the C. is about six inches. The tail is very slightly forked. The male, in summer, has the top of the head and nape of the neck bluish-gray; the back, chestnut; the wings almost black, with two conspicuous white bars; the tail, nearly black. The colours of the female are much duller than those of the male. The C. is a very widely distributed species, Leing found in almost all parts of Europe, in some parts of Asia, in the north of Africa, and as far west as the Azores. In the colder northern countries, it is migratory; in more southern regions, it is stationary. Linnæus gave it the specific name calebs, from observing that the flocks congregated ia winter in Sweden consisted chiefly of males, the females having, as he supposed, sought a milder climate. A partial separation of the sexes is observed also in the great winter-flocks in Britain, but it is only partial; and Yarrell thinks that the young males of the previous season, which resemble the females in plumage, are associated with them, and have been mistaken for them. The flocks seen in Britain in winter are believed to be augmented by migration from Scandinavia. The eggs are usually four or five in number, of pale purplish buff colour, sparingly streaked and spotted with reddish brown. The C. feeds chiefly on insects, and does much service in summer by destroying aphides and caterpillars; but eats also seeds, and is sometimes persecuted, because in spring it pulls up and eats young turnips and radishes when in the seed-leaf. Great numbers of chaffinches are killed for the table in Italy. In Germany, this bird is in the highest esteem as a song-bird. Its notes are very clear and loud, but some individuals greatly excel the ordinary multitude of their species; and their superior notes, if heard on the Thuringian hills, speedily attract bird-catchers. Bechstein says that, in Thuringia a cow has been given for a C. with a fine voice; and the Germans have taken the trouble to classify the different strains of chaffinches, giving them distinct names, and regarding those birds as particu ́arly valuable by which certain of these strains are produced. The common Scotch name of the C. is Shilfa.

length. All is fired collectively from the gun, and the chain enables the balls to catch and destroy objects which otherwise might possibly escape.

CHAINS, on shipboard, are strong iron links or plates, bolted at the lower end to the ship-timbers, and having a block or dead eye at the upper end. Their purpose is to fasten down the shrouds tightly. They are brought out laterally at the top by resting in the middle against the channels, which are broad thick planks, very strongly fixed, and projecting horizontally from the side of the ship, one pair for each mast.

was no

CHAINS, HANGING IN In atrocious cases, it was the bodies of malefactors, after execution, to be hung usual for courts of justice, in former times, to direct in C. upon a gibbet near the spot where the crime was committed; but this, says Blackstone, part of the legal judgment.' The reasons commonly stribe terror into other offenders; and second, that assigned for the practice are two: first, that it might it might afford a comfortable sight to the relations and friends of the deceased.' This barbarous adjunct 10 capital punishment was not finally abolished till a very recent period, and it may surprise our readers to learn that, two years after the passing of the Reform Bill, it was still in accordance with the law, if not with the custom of England. The act to abolish the practice of hanging the bodies of criminals in chains' (4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 26), was passed on 25th July, 1834. The last case of hanging in C. mentioned as having occurred in Scotland, is that of Andrew Wilson, who poisoned his wife in 1755 (Hume, vol. ii., p. 482). See PUNISHMENTS and DISSECTION.

CHALA'ZA, in Botany, a membrane which unites the nucleus and integuments at the base of an ovule. It is traversed by vessels which supply nourishment to the ovule. It is often of a different colour from the rest of the integuments, and is conspicuous in the ripened seed; but it is sometimes difficult to distinguish it, particularly in orthotropal seeds, when i; is in contact with the hilum, the foramen or micro.. pyle being at the opposite extremity of the seed. See OVULE and SEED.

The cords which bind the yolk-bag of an egg o the lining membrane at the two ends of the shell, and keep it near the middle as it floats in the albamen, are also called chalaze. They appear to be formed of a peculiarly viscid albumen.

CHAGRES, a river entering the Gulf of Darien on the north side of the Isthmus of Panama, near lat. 9° 18' N. Though, towards its mouth, it varies in depth from 16 to 30 feet, it is yet, by reason at once of its rapidity and its falls, but little available for CHALCE DON, a city of ancient Bithynia, at ne navigation. At its entrance is a port of its own entrance of the Euxine, opposite to Byzantium, Is name. Both the town, however, and the stream was founded 684 B. c. by a colony from Megara, anc have recently lost nearly all the advantages of their soon became a place of considerable trade and inposition, through the establishment of an inter-portance. It contained several temples, one of winet.. oceanic railway, which, on the Atlantic side, commences at Aspinwall, about 8 miles to the north.

dedicated to Apollo, had an oracle. C. was taken by the Persians, suffered the vicissitudes of war during CHAIN, in Surveying (called Gunter's Chain, from the strife for Grecian supremacy between the Atherits inventor), is a measure of 22 yards long, com-ans and Lacedæmonians, and finally merged into the posed of 100 iron links, each of which is thus 7.92 Roman empire. During the Mithridatic war, it was inches long. As an acre contains 4840 square yards, the scene of a bold exploit of the Pontic sovereign 1) square chains (22 × 22 × 10=4840 square yards), Having invaded Bithynia, all the wealthy Romans or 100,000 square links, make an acre. the district fled for refuge to C., whereupon he broke the chains that protected the port, burned four ships, and towed away the remaining sixty. Under the empire it was made a free city, and was the scene or a general council, held 451 A. D. Chosroes the Persian captured it 616 A. D., after which it declived, until it was finally demolished by the Turks, whe used its ruins to build mosques and other edifices at Constantinople. C. was the birthplace of the philosopher Xenocrates.

CHAIN-BRIDGE. See SUSPENSION Bridge.
CHAIN-CABLE. See CABLE.

CHAIN-MAIL, or CHAIN-ARMOUR, much used in the 12th and 13th centuries, consisted of hammered iron links, connected one to another into the form of a garment. Such armour was much more flexible and convenient to the wearer than that which was formed of steel or brass plates, but was less fitted to bear the thrust of a lance.

CHAIN-SHOT, chiefly used in naval warfare, are very destructive missiles, consisting of two balls, connected by a piece of chain eight or ten inches in

The council of C., to which allusion has been made, was the fourth universal council, and was assembled by the emperor Marcian for the purpose of drawing up a form of doctrine in regard to the nature of

CHALCEDONY-CHALEUR BAY.

Christ, which should equally avoid the errors of the Nestorians (q. v.) and Monophysites (q. v.). Six hundred bishops, almost all of the Eastern or Greek Church, were present. The doctrine declared to be orthodox was, that in Christ there were two natures, which could not be intermixed (this clause was directed against the Monophysites), and which also were not in entire separation (this was directed against the Nestorians,) but which were so conjoined, that their union destroyed neither the peculiarity of each nature, nor the oneness of Christ's person.

and Romans, and was at this time a place of great military importance, nearly 9 miles in circumference, and had many fine temples, theatres, and other public buildings. Aristotle died at Chalcis. In the middle ages, it was prosperous under the Venetians, who held it for nearly three centuries, until its conquest by the Turks in 1470. The lion of St. Mark is, or was until within recent years, still to be seen over the gateway between the bridge and the citadel. Not many ancient remains now exist at Chalcis. The streets are narrow, but the houses, many of which owe their origin to the Venetians, are substantial and spacious. Pop. 5000.

CHAʼLCIS, a genus of Saurian reptiles, the type of a family called Chalcido, some of which are popularly termed snake-lizards, because of the resemblance to snakes in the elongated form of the body, the limbs being also remarkably small, so that this

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CHALCEDONY (often mispelled Calcedony), a beautiful mineral of the quartz family, or rather a variety of quartz, from which it does not differ in chemical composition or in any essential character. It derives its name from Chalcedon in Bithynia, near which it is found in considerable abundance, and has been known by the same name from ancient times. It occurs in different kinds of rock, but most frequently in old lavas and trap-rocks, and is found in almost all parts of the world where these exist, or where there are boulders derived from them. It is common in Scotland, and specimens of great beauty are brought from Iceland and the Faröe Islands. It never occurs in crystals. It constitutes the whole or the principal part of many agates. It is generally translucent, sometimes semi-transparent, has not much lustre, and is in colour generally white or bluish white, sometimes reddish white, sometimes milk-white, less frequently gray, blue, green, yellow, brown, or even black. Its fracture is even, or very slightly conchoidal.-C. is much used in jewellery, for brooches, necklaces, and ornaments of all sorts, a, the wings of one side, magnified (very destitute of nerthe largest pieces being sometimes made into little boxes, cups, &c. It was much used by the ancients, and many beautiful engraved specimens appear in antiquarian collections. Chalcedonies with dissemi- | nated spots of brown and red, were once very highly prized, and were called Stigmites or St. Stephen's stones. Petrified plants are sometimes found in C., in which they appear to have been encased whilst it was in course of formation. Specimens of C. are sometimes found enclosing a little water in the interior, which gives them a very beautiful appearance; but the water easily escapes, to prevent which, rings or other ornaments made of such stones are kept in distilled water, when not worn. The ancients set a very high value on these enhydrites (Gr. en, in, and hydor, water). The Vicentin was celebrated for producing them.

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CHALCE’DONYX (or, erroneously, Calcedonyx), a name given to agates formed of cacholong, or a white opaque chalcedony, alternating with a grayish translucent chalcedony.

Chalcis Cleripes,

One of the largest British species:

vures); b, hind-leg, magnified; c, antenna, magnified.

family forms one of the transition links between the Saurian and the Ophidian reptiles. The scales are rectangular, and arranged in transverse bands, without being imbricated or disposed like tiles. The Chalcide are natives of warm climates, both in the old and new worlds.

The name C. has also been bestowed on a genus of the order Hymenoptera, allied to the Ichneumons, which has become the type of a tribe or family, containing a vast number of species-1500 being supposed to exist in Britain-all of them of small size, many very minute, many of them very brilliant in their colours, and the larvæ of all of them parasitic in the larvæ or pupæ, some even in the eggs, of other insects. The chrysalis of a butterfly or moth often nourishes a great number of these parasites; and they become useful in preventing the excessive multiplication of species which destroy valuable plants.

CHALCO'GRAPHY, a pedantic term used to signify engraving on copper, compounded of the Greek words, chalkos, brass or copper, and grapho, I write. The term is inaccurate when applied, as it often is, to engraving on other metals, such as steel and zinc. For zinc-engraving, the still more objectionable word Zincography has been invented.

CHALDE'A. See BABYLON, BABYLONIA.
CHA'LDEE. See ARAMÆA.

CHA'LCIS, the capital town of the island and government of Euboea, Greece, situated on the Euripus, a strait separating the island from Boeotia, and which at this point is only 120 feet wide. The Euripus is divided into two channels, of unequal breadth and depth, by a rock, which is surmounted by a castle, partly of Venetian and partly of Turkish construction. A stone bridge, of some 70 feet in length, connects the rock with the Bootian shore, while a wooden and movable bridge, of about 35 feet, unites it with Chalcis. C. is a place of very great antiquity, having been founded, as tradition asserts, before the Trojan war, by an Ionian colony from Athens. Its rise was rapid. It sent out numerous colonies, and was the centre of the trade of the western Mediterranean. Governed at first by an aristocracy, it fell into the hands of CHALEUR BAY, an inlet of the Gulf of St. the Athenians, who in 506 B. C. divided the lands Lawrence, between Gaspe, a district of Lower Caof C. amongst some of their own number. It sub-nada, and New Brunswick, having a depth of 90 sequently fell under the power of the Macedonians miles from east to west, and a width varying from

CHALDER, an old Scotch dry measure, containing 16 bolls. See BOLL.

CHA'LDRON (Lat. caldarium, a vessel for warm water), an old dry measure used in selling coal, and containing 36 heaped bushels. Coal is now sold by weight.

CHALICE-CHALMERS.

12 to 20. The Ristigouche, which enters the gulf | from New Brunswick at its very head, marks, at its mouth, the inter-provincial boundary.

Chalice:

it was

CHALK-BEDS. See CRETACEOUS SYSTEM.

CHALKING THE DOOR, a mode of warning tenants to remove from burghal tenements, long CHA'LICE (Lat. calix, known and still in use in Scotland. The practice is a cup). This ancient name thus described by Mr. Hunter in his valuable work for an ordinary drinking- on Landlord and Tenant: A burgh-officer, in cup has been retained for presence of witnesses, chalks the most patent door the vessels used for the forty days before Whitsunday, which is held to be wine in the holy sacra- a legal warning. There is no execution at the ment. Chalices are com- parish church, but the officer makes out an exemonly made of silver, but cution of chalking,' in which his name must be not unusual for inserted, and which must be subscribed by himself them to be of gold, or gilt and two witnesses. This ceremony now proceeds and jewelled. Chalices simply on the verbal order of the proprietor, but were also made of glass, anciently the interposition of a judge was requisite. crystal, and agate; but, In such a case, authority was given by one of the Found in a Stone Coffin of these substances have been magistrates to the burgh-officer.' That judicial the 12th century in Chi- abandoned, in consequence authority is still assumed to lie at the root of the chester Cathedral.-Copied of their fragile nature. proceeding, is apparent from the fact, that the The C. is the attribute of execution bears that the warning has been executed St. John the Evangelist. in her Majesty's name and authority, and that of the CHALK, a soft earthy variety of limestone or magistrates of the burgh. The officer ought to carbonate of lime, forming great strata, and claim- notify to the tenant the object of his visit, though ing the attention of the geologist even more than The execution of chalking is a warrant under which it is not perhaps indispensable that he should do so. of the mineralogist. It is generally of a yellowish- decree of removal will be pronounced by the burghwhite colour, but sometimes snow-white. easily broken, and has an earthy fracture, is rough court, in virtue of which the tenant may be ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days. See and very meagre to the touch, and adheres slightly EJECTMENT. to the tongue. It generally contains a little silica, alumina, or magnesia, sometimes all of these. Although often very soft and earthy, it is sometimes so compact that it can be used as a buildingstone; and it is used for this purpose either in a rough state, or sawn into blocks of proper shape and size. It is burned into quicklime, and nearly

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from Parker's Glossary of Architecture.

It is

all the houses in London are cemented with mortar so procured. The silicious particles being separated by pounding and diffusing in water, it becomes whiting, of which the domestic uses are familiar to every one. Carpenters and others use it for making marks, which are easily effaced: the blackboard and piece of C. are now common equally in the lecture-rooms of universities and in the humblest village-schools. C., perfectly purified, is mixed with vegetable colouring matters, such as turmeric, litmus, saffron, and sap-green, to form pastil colours; but vegetable colours which contain an acid are changed by it. See CRAYON. The Vienna white of artists is simply purified chalk. In a perfectly purified state, it is administered as a medicine, to correct acidity in the stomach. C. is also extensively used as a manure. See LIME, as a manure. CHALK, BLACK, is a mineral quite different from common chalk, and apparently receives its name from resembling it in meagerness to the touch, in soiling the fingers, and in being used for drawing, writing, &c. It is also called DRAWINGSLATE. It is of a slaty structure, of a bluish or grayish-black colour, easily cut or broken, and makes a perfectly black mark on paper. It is used for drawing, and has a black colour in painting. It becomes red by exposure to heat. It is essentially a kind of clay (q. v.), and derives its colour from carbon, which it contains. It is found in primitive mountains, in Spain, France, Italy, &c., also in the coal formation in Scotland.-BRIANÇON CHALK and FRENCH CHALK are popular names for Soapstone (q. v.).-RED CHALK is Ochry Red Clay-iron-ore, consisting of clay and much peroxide of iron. It is of a brownish-red colour, and a somewhat slaty structure, the cross fracture earthy. The coarser varieties are used chiefly by carpenters for making marks on wood; the finer, by painters. It occurs in thin beds in clay-slate and grauwacke-slate in some parts of Germany

CHALKY ISLAND, in New Zealand, near the south-west extremity of Middle Island, about lat. It takes its name 46° S., and long. 166° 20′ E. from being composed of a mass of white limestone, and imparts the same to the adjacent bay of 16 miles in length, and also to one of the harbours of

the inlet.

eminent historical

CHALLENGE. See DUEl. CHALLENGE. See JURY. CHA'LMERS, GEORGE, an antiquary, was born at Fochabers, Morayshire, Scotland, in 1742. Having attended King's College, Aberdeen, and afterwards studied law at Edinburgh, he went in 1763 to North America, where he practised as a lawyer till the breaking out of the war of independence. Being a keen loyalist, he returned to Britain, where he was appointed clerk to the Board of Trade in 1786. The duties of this

It

office he continued to discharge with diligence and
ability till his death in 1825. Before his appoint-
ment, he had distinguished himself by various publi-
cations in political economy; and for some time
after he devoted himself chiefly to editing the works
of various authors and writing biographies. His
great work is his Caledonia; an Account, Historical
and Topographical, of North Britain; a production
displaying profound research into the history of
Scotland, and abounding in varied erudition.
was intended to be completed in 4 vols. 4to. The
first volume, containing the historical part, appeared
in 1807; of the other three, which were destined to
give an account of the several counties, the second,
embracing Roxburghshire, Berwickshire, Hadding-
tonshire, Edinburghshire, Linlithgowshire, Peebles-
shire, and Selkirkshire, appeared in 1810; the third,
containing the counties of Dumfries, Kirkcudbright,
Wigton, Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew, and Dumbarton, ap-
peared in 1824. A fourth volume is understood to
have been left at his death ready for the press.

Among his other publications are: Political Annals of the United Colonies (Lond. 1780); On the Comparative Strength of Great Britain, during the present and the four preceding Reigns (Lond. 1782, 1786, 1794, 1862, 1812); A Collection of Treaties between Great Britain and other Powers (2 vols., Lond. 1790); Life of Daniel Defoe (Lond. 1786);

CHALMERS-CHALON-SUR-SAONE.

Life of Thomas Ruddiman (1794); Life of Mary | voluntary contributions at the church-door, adminQueen of Scots (Lond. 1818); editions of the works of Allan Ramsay (1800), and of Sir David Lindsay (1806), with memoirs; also various pamphlets apologising for those, himself included, who had believed in the authenticity of the Shakspeare manuscripts forged by Mr. Ireland.

man broke forth like sunshine.

istered by elders. The management of the poor in the parish of St. John's was intrusted to his care by the authorities, as an experiment, and in four years he reduced the pauper expenditure from £1400 to £280 per annum.

Man.

But such herculean toils began to undermine his constitution, and in 1823 he accepted the offer of the Moral Philosophy chair in St. Andrews, where he wrote his treatise on the Use and Abuse of Literary and Ecclesiastical Endowments (1827). In the following year, he was transferred to the chair of Theology in Edinburgh, and in 1832 published a work on political economy, In 1833 appeared his Bridgewater treatise, On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of It was received with great favour, and obtained for the author many literary honours; the Royal Society of Edinburgh electing him a fellow, and the French Institute a corresponding member, while the University of Oxford conferred. on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1834, he was appointed convener of the Church-extension Committee; and after seven years of enthusiastic labour, announced that upwards of £300,000 had been collected from the nation, and 220 new churches built. Meanwhile, however, troubles were springing up in the bosom of the church itself. The Evangelical party had become predominant in the General Assembly, and came forward as the vindicators of popular rights; the struggles in regard to patronage between them and the Moderate' or 'Erastian' party became keener and more frequent, until the decision of the civil courts in the famous 'Auchterarder and Strathbogie' cases brought matters to a crisis; and on the 18th of May 1843, C., followed by 470 clergymen, left the church of his fathers, rather than sacrifice those principles which he believed essential to the purity, honour, and See articles DISindependence of the church. The rapid formation RUPTION and FREE CHURCH. and organisation of the Free Church were greatly owing to his indefatigable exertions, in consequence of which he was elected Principal of the Free Church College, and spent the close of his life in the zealous performance of his learned duties, and in perfecting his Institutes of Theology. He died suddenly at Morningside, Edinburgh, May 30, 1847.

CHALMERS, THOMAS, D.D., LL.D., was born at Anstruther, in Fifeshire, 17th March 1780, educated at the university of St. Andrews, and in his 19th year licensed to preach the gospel. In 1803 he was ordained minister of the parish of Kilmany, in Fifeshire, about 9 miles from St. Andrews. At this period, his attention was entirely absorbed by mathematics and natural philosophy, to the neglect of the studies appertaining to his profession. To gratify his love of scientific pursuits, he even formed mathematical and chemistry classes in St. Andrews during the winter of 1803-1804, and by his wonderful enthusiasm and lucidity of exposition excited intense interest, and obtained for himself a great reputation. In 1808 he published an Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of National Resources, which proved his capacity for dealing with questions of political economy. Shortly after this, certain domestic calamities, and a severe illness of his own, opened up the fountains of his soul, and rendered him keenly susceptible to religious impressions. Having to prepare an article on Christianity for Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia, he commenced an extensive study of the evidences, and rose from his investigations convinced that Christianity was a fact, and the Bible the veritable 'word of God.' Then the great genius of the He grew earnest, eloquent, devout, and faithful to his pastoral duties. In July 1815, he was translated to the Tron Church and parish, Glasgow, where his magnificent oratory took the city by storm. His Astronomical Discourses were probably the most sublimely intellectual and imaginative that had ever been preached in a Scottish pulpit. They were published in 1817, and had a prodigious popularity. During the same year he visited London, where his preaching excited as great a sensation as at home. But C.'s energies could not be exhausted by mere oratory. Discovering that his parish was in a state of great ignorance and immorality, he began to devise a scheme for overtaking and checking the alarming evil. It seemed to him that the only means by which this could be accomplished was by 'revivifying, remodelling, and extending the old parochial economy of Scotland,' which had proved so fruitful of good in the rural parishes. In order to wrestle more closely with the ignorance and vice of Glasgow, C., in 1819, became minister of St. John's parish, 'the population of which was made up principally of weavers, labourers, factory-workers, and other operatives.' 'Of its 2000 families,' says Dr. Hanna, more than 800 had no connection with any Christian church, while the number of its uneducated children was countless.' We have no space to narrate at length how vast and successful were the labours of Chalmers. It is sufficient to say, that in pursuance of his favourite plan, he broke up his parish into 25 districts, each of which he placed under separate management, and established two week-day schools, and between 40 and 50 local Sabbath schools, for the instruction of the children of the poorer and neglected classes,' more than 1000 of whom attended. In a multitude of other ways he sought to elevate and purify the lives of his parishioners. While in Glasgow, C. had matured his opinions relative to the best method of providing for the poor. He CHALON-SUR-SAONE, a town of France, in the disliked the English system of a compulsory department of Saone-et-Loire, about 33 miles north assessment,' and preferred the old Scotch method of of Macon. It is situated on the right bank of the

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This is not the place for a criticism on the works of C., which extend to more than 30 vols. It is sufficient to say, that they contain valuable and, in some cases, original contributions to the sciences of natural theology, Christian apologetics, and political economy; while on minor topics, such as the church-establishment question, they exhibit both novelty and ingenuity of argument. As an orator, C. was unique and unrivalled. We read of men, in the history of the Christian church, whom we can believe to have been as eloquent, impassioned, and earnest, but nowhere do we encounter a man in whom intellect, feeling, and imagination were so harmoniously combined-a nature so 'nobly planned, to warn, to comfort, and command.' Scotland never produced a greater or more lovable soul, one more gentle, guileless, genial-hearted, or yet more fervid, from the strength of a resolute and irresistible will, before whose impetus difficulties were dashed aside There have been some loftier and as by a torrent. more purely original minds in Scotland than C.'s, but there has never been a truer one, nor a heart whose Christian faith and piety were more intense, sincere, and humane.

CHALONS-SUR-MARNE-CHAMEROPS.

Srone, at the point where that river is joined by the Canal-du-Centre, which unites the Saone with the Loire, and secures C. an extensive traffic with the central districts of France, as well as with the Mediterranean and Atlantic. The town is generally well built, good quays line the river, along which also the finest houses extend. Vineyards, wood, meadows, and cultivated fields surround and add variety and beauty to the situation. Its manufactures include hats, hosiery, vinegar, oil, pottery, jewellery, and imitation pearls; and it has a large trade in the agricultural and other produce of the district. Steam-boats navigate the Saone from C. downwards. Pop. 18,666. C. occupies the site of the ancient Cabillonum or Caballinum.

CHALONS-SUR-MARNE, a town of France, in the department of Marne, 107 miles east of Paris by railway. It stands on the right bank of the river Marne, which is here crossed by a handsome stone bridge. C. is old; and the houses consist chiefly of timber, lath, and plaster. The situation, however, is agreeable, and the town contains some fine public buildings, the principal of which is the cathedral, in the sanctuary of which there is one of the finest grand altars in Frarce. On the east side of the town there is the splendid Promenade du Jard, or park, which covers 19 acres, and the walks of which are shaded by noble trees. In the outskirts of the town are the very extensive Champagne cellars of M. Jaqueson, whose ordinary stock of bottles amounts to between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000, and whose corks alone cost £6000 per annum. C. has manufactures of woollen, cotton, leather, &c., and a considerable trade in grain, hemp, rape-seed oil, and Champagne wine. Pop. 14,000. Previous to the union of Champagne with France in 1284, C. enjoyed a much larger measure of commercial prosperity, and its population numbered about 60,000.

CHALYBE US, a genus of birds very closely allied to the Baritahs (q. v.), but having a rather thicker bill, and the nostrils pierced in a broad membranous space. The species are natives of New Guinea, and are birds of the most beautiful plumage, remarkable for the brilliancy of their metallic tints, and particularly for the resemblance to burnished steel, to which they owe their name (Gr. chalyps, -ybos, steel). On this account, they are sometimes included under the name of Birds of Paradise; and the skin of C. paradisœus, deprived of its feet, is sold as that of a Bird of Paradise.

German

CHALYBÆUS, HEINRICH MORITZ, a philosopher, was born 3d July, 1796, at Pfaffroda in Saxony, and educated at the university of Leipsic. After spending some years in teaching, he was appointed in 1839 professor of philosophy in the university of Kiel. His chief works are the Historische Entwickelung der speculativen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel (Dresden, 1836-a translation of this work into English has been executed by the Rev. Alfred Edersheim of Aberdeen), and the System der speculativen Ethik (Leip. 1850).

the term acidulo-chalybeate or acidulo-ferruginous is applied. The Sulphated C. W. contain sulphate of iron (FeO,SO;) dissolved in them, and examples of this class are afforded at the Isle of Wight (the Sand Rock Spring), Vicars Bridge, Moffat, &c. C. W. are characterised by a more or less inky or styptic taste; by becoming of a purplish black tint when infusion of galls or tea, and some varieties of wine, are added; and by giving a pale blue colour on the addition of a few drops of ferrocyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate of potash). C. W. are of great service in cases of debility, and the acidulo-carbonated kind being lighter on the stomach, is generally preferred; but all C. W. are to be avoided in plethoric, febrile, and inflammatory conditions of the system.

CHA'MA, a genus of lamellibranchiate mollusks. The shell consists of two unequal valves, having two hinge-teeth in the one valve, and one in the other. The general form of the shell approaches to orbicular. The shell is generally thick, and is foliated with leaf-like projections, which arise in a somewhat regular manner from its surface; these and the colours of some of the species combining to make them very beautiful. The shells of the Chamae are often called Clams or Clamp-shells, a name which they share with some of the Pectens, Spondyli, &c. They are found only in the seas of warm climates, none further north than the Mediterranean. The Linnæan genus C. contained many species now removed to other families, but the restricted genus C. is the type of a family Chamida. Thirty fossil species have been referred to C., four from the Cretaceous period, and twenty-six from the Tertiary.

CHAMA'DE. See PARLEY.

CHAME'ROPS, a genus of palms, with fanshaped leaves, less exclusively tropical than palms are in general, and of which one species, C. humilis, is the only palm truly indigenous to Europe. It

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Chamærops Humilis.

CHALY'BEATE CHALY BEATE WATERS are those which contain a considerable proportion of iron in solution. They are of two kinds, Carbonated and Sulphated. The Carbonated C. W. contain carbonate of iron (FeO,CO2) dissolved in excess of carbonic acid, and may be recognised by forming an ochry deposit of red extends as far north as to the neighbourhood of Nice. oxide of iron (Fe2O3) on the surface of the stones It is sometimes called the PALMETTO. The flowers near the months of the springs, owing to the escape are in spathes about 6-8 inches long; the fruit is of the carbonic acid on exposure to the air. Islington a triple blackish spongy drupe, which is eaten, as Spa near London, Tunbridge Wells, and Oddy's Saline C. W. at Harrogate, are examples of this class. Where an excess of carbonic acid is present, communicating a sparkling aspect to the water and an acidulous taste, as at Pyrmont, and other places,

are also the young shoots. This palm is so tolerant of a cold climate, that a specimen has lived in the open air in the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh for more than forty years, with the protection of matting in winter. In its native regions, the leaves are much

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