CHAMOND-CHAMPAC.

Its

plant intensely bitter and highly aromatic. medicinal virtues are ascribed to the essential oil which it contains, Oil of Chamomile, which abounds most of all in the involucre. This oil is of a greenish-yellow colour, and is used in the preparation of some medicines. The dried flowers are often administered in the form of an infusion, as a stimulant of the nerves of the abdomen, an alterative and antispasmodic; or are applied to the skin as an anodyne, and on account of their power of promoting absorption and suppuration. The infusion also acts as an emetic, and is often used to assist the action of other emetics. C. flowers find

a place in the pharmacopoeia, and are also amongst the most esteemed of domestic medicines, the plant being extensively cultivated for their sake, and very generally finding a place even in cottage gardens. Yet they ought to be used with caution, as they have been known to produce congestion of the brain, and are very apt to aggravate any malady of this kind already existing. A double-flowering variety of C. is more generally cultivated than the single, to supply the C. flowers of the shops, the flowers being whiter and more bulky, but it is otherwise rather inferior. C. is easily propagated by parting the roots. It delights in a dry and rather poor soil.The name WILD C. is given to a very similar plant, also a native of Britain (Matricaria Chamomilla), an annual belonging to a genus closely allied to Anthemis. It may readily be distinguished by the want of scales on the receptacle. Its medicinal virtues resemble those of common C., and although now disused in Britain, it is in some parts of Europe preferred for internal use, because it is less bitter, less nauseous, and generally milder and more agreeable in its operation.-No small quantity of common C. is illegally used in the manufacture of beer in England, and is imported from Germany for this purpose. Yet this plant is so abundant in some parts of the south of England as to form a principal part of the pasture in sheep-walks, and to fill the whole air with its scent. The other British species of C. (Anthemis) are mere weeds; one of them, called Stinking C. (A. Cotula), is so acrid as to blister the fingers, if much handled. But the flowers of the Ox-EYE C., or DYER'S C. (A. tinctoria), a native of many parts of the continent of Europe, yield a beautiful yellow dye, on account of which the plant is often cultivated.

CHAMOND, Sr., a town of France, in the department of Loire, situated at the confluence of the Gier and the Ban, about 7 miles north-east of St. Etienne, on the railway between that place and Lyon. It is a flourishing well-built town, with extensive manuC. has also factures of ribbons and stay-laces. several silk-mills and numerous iron furnaces and foundries; and extensive coal-mines exist in the vicinity. Pop. 10,100.

or

CHAMORERIL, a lake of Ladakh or Middle Tibet, in lat. 32° 55′ N., and long. 78° 15′ E. It lies at a height of 15,000 feet above the sea, on the plateau between the upper waters of the Sutlej and of the Indus, girt by mountains which rise, at some points, 5000 feet above its own level. Though it is beyond the recognised limits of perpetual congelation, yet it freezes only in winter, and is hence supposed to be of great depth. Necessarily receiving much water from the surrounding mountains, it is without any visible outlet-evaporation alone, even at this elevation, appearing to maintain one uniform surface on a length of 15 miles, and a width of 21.

CHAMOUNI, or CHAMONIX (Lat. Campus munitus), is the name of a wild and romantic valley. and village among the Alps in Savoy. It lies at a distance from all the high roads, at an elevation of about 3400 feet above the level of the sea, and more than 2000 feet above that of the Lake of Geneva. The valley is about 13 miles long, and about 2 broad, and is traversed by the Arve. It is bounded at the east end by the Col de Balme, over which there is a mule-path to Martigny, in the upper valley of the Rhone, and from the other end issues the road to Geneva, which lies at a distance of 534 miles from Chamouni. On the north side lies Mont Breven and the chain of the Aiguilles Rouges, and on the south, the giant group of Mont Blanc, from which enormous glaciers or rivers of ice slide down, even in summer, almost to the bottom of the valley. The chief of these glaciers are—the Glacier des Bossons, des Bois, d'Argentière, and du Tour. By ascending to a point called Montanvert, we come upon the upper course of a glacier, where it expands into a great mountain-lake of ice called the Mer de Glace, in which there is a solitary rock or oasis called Le Jardin, about seven acres in extent, and covered with the most beautiful herbage. excursion to the Jardin is one of the most striking excursions within the range of Chamouni. 1741, the valley was almost unknown; the region was considered a wilderness, and known by the name of Les Montagnes Maudites, or accursed mountains.' In the above year, it was visited by two Englishmen, Pocock and Wyndham, who ascended as far as Montanvert; and a granite block there still bears the name of the Englishmen's Stone. It was only, however, in 1775, that the attention of travellers was effectually called to it by Saussure and Bourrit. The valley is rich in peculiar plants, and furnishes an aromatic and perfectly white honey. The village of C. owes its origin to the Benedictine convent founded between 1088 and 1099. The population of the village is about 2000, who depend partly upon the strangers who visit the valley, and partly upon the pastures and upon hunting. There are several good hotels, and the best guides are to be found here for the neighbouring Alps. It is from C. that Mont Blanc is usually

ascended.

The

Until

CHAMPAC (Michelia Champaca), an Indian tree, possessing great beauty both of foliage and flowers, and much venerated both by Brahmanists and Buddhists. Images of Buddha are made of its wood. Its flowers have a pale-yellow tint, and a

CHAMPAGNE-CHAMPION.

sweet oppressive perfume, much celebrated in the simply charging other light wines with carbonic poetry of the Hindus.

CHAMPAGNE, formerly a province of France, now forming the departments of Seine-et-Marne, Aube, Yonne, Haute-Saone, and Ardennes. The province was about 180 miles long by 150 broad, its surface presenting extensive plains with ranges of hills, especially in the north and east. Upon these hills is grown the famous Champagne wine.

In ancient times, C. was known as a part of Gallia, was subjugated by Cæsar, and afterwards was annexed to the kingdom established by the Franks. After the 11th c., it had its own dukes, who were vassals of the French kings. By the marriage of Philippe IV. with Joanna, heiress to the kingdom of Navarre, Champagne, and Brie, C., in 1284, came to the French crown, and was incorporated by Philippe VI. in 1328. During the campaign of 1792, the eastern part, and, in the campaign of 1814, the western part, of C., was the chief arena of warfare.

CHAMPAGNE WINE is the produce of vineyards in the above-mentioned province of Champagne. There are white and red Champagnes; the white is either sparkling or still. Sparkling or effervescent (mousseux) C. is the result of a peculiar treatment during fermentation. In December, the wine is racked off, and fined with isinglass,' and in March it is bottled and tightly corked. The fermentation being incomplete when the wine is bottled, the carbonic acid gas generated in a confined space dissolves in the wine, and communicates the sparkling property to Champagne. To clear the wine of sediment, the bottles are first placed in a sloping position with the necks downward, so that the sediment may be deposited in the necks of the bottles. When this sediment has been poured off, some portion of a liqueur (a solution of sugar-candy in cognac) is added to the wine, and every bottle is filled up with bright clarified wine, and securely with bright clarified wine, and securely re-corked. The effervescence of the wine thus prepared bursts many bottles, in some cases 10 per cent.; and in seasons of early and sudden heat, as many as 20 and 25 per cent. have been burst. Wine-buyers estimate the value of wine according to the breakage, that which breaks most bottles being considered best. Still or non-effervescent C. is first racked off in the March after the vintage. Creaming or slightly effervescent C. (demi-mousseux) has more alcohol, but less carbonic acid gas than sparkling Champagne.

The best varieties of this wine are produced at Rheims and Epernay, and generally on a chalky soil. Among white Champagnes of the first class, the best are those of Sillery, which are of a fine amber hue, dry spirituous, and possessing a superior bouquet; those of Ay and Mareuil are less spirituous, but are sparkling, with a pleasant bouquet. Other white wines of first class are those of Ilautvilliers, Dizy, Epernay, and Pierry.

In the first class of red C., or Montagne, we have the varieties of Verzy, Verzenay, Mailly, St. Basle, Bouzy, and Thierry, all having fine colour, clearness, good body, sufficient spirit, and a pleasant bouquet. The trade in Champagne wines is chiefly carried on in Rheims, Avise, Epernay, and Chalons-surMarne. The cellars in which the vintages are stored are cut out of the calcareous rock. The fact that the sale of C. is very extensive and lucrative, has naturally given rise to adulterations. Sugar, and the juices of pears or gooseberries, or birch-juice, &c., have been used for making spurious Champagne. It may fairly be reckoned that not even a third part of the wine sold for C. in Paris is genuine. The greater part of it is readily manufactured by

100

acid gas. Recently the German purveyors have Rhenish, Main, Neckar, Meissner, and Naumburg succeeded in preparing light wines such as connoisseur. Altogether, it is estimated that the -so much like genuine C., as to deceive even the district produces 1,100,000 hectolitres (24,200,000 gallons) of genuine C., of which, however, the finest growths make but a small part.

CHA'MPARTY, or CHA'MPERTY (Fr., from Lat. campi partitio, a division of lands), an offence known to the law of England, which consists in a bargain between the plaintiff or defendant in a suit, and a third party, generally a lawyer, that the latter shall have part of the land, debt, or other thing sued for, in the event of success, and that in the meantime he shall carry on the suit at his own expense. This practice has been strictly forbidden by statute in England from very early times (3 Edward I., c. 25; 13 Edward I., c. 49; &c.); and in Scotland, the rule of the civil law by which the pactum de quotâ litis (q. v.) was held to be a pactum illicitum (4. v.), and as such void, has all along been forbidden by statute to members of the College part of the common law. Such practices were also between the laws of the two countries, however, of Justice (1594, c. 216). There is this difference that whereas in England the offence has always been punished criminally, in Scotland, the only penalty which it entails beyond nullity of the bargain, is deprivation of office. In former times, the evil chiefly apprehended from C. probably was, that the honesty of judges might be tampered with by advocates who were generally their friends, and not unfrequently their very near relatives, if permitted in which they were professionally employed. In to be personally interested in the issue of the causes our own day, the chief danger consists in the encouragement which might thus be given to dishonest and oppressive litigation, and the facilities which would be afforded for nefarious transactions between: the agents on the opposite sides. That practices unknown in the lower strata of the legal profession closely analogous to C., though unnamed, are not in all countries, is but too probable. The necessities of trade have further introduced considerable equitable modifications into the law of C., which will be explained under CHOSE IN ACTION.

CHAMPION (from a Gothic root signifying to contend, fight; Ang.-Sax., camp, fight). In the judi cial combats of the middle ages, it was allowed to women, children, and aged persons, except in cases of high treason or of parricide, to appear in the lists by a representative. Such a hired combatant was called a champion. Those who followed this profession were generally of the lowest class, and were held disreputable; for besides the perils of the combat, they were liable to be executed as well as their clients. They were obliged to wear a peculiar dress of leather, and peculiar armour, which was also held disreputable. They were not allowed to fight on horseback, and appeared in the lists with their hair and nails cut short. Champions are mentioned as early as in the time of Charlemagne: and Otto I. employed them in deciding the succession to the empire. At a later period, in the age of Chivalry, the word C. came to have a more dignified acceptation, and signified a knight who entered the lists on behalf of an injured lady, of a child, or of any one incapable of self-defence. In England, the crown even had its C., who, mounted on horseback and armed to the teeth, challenged, at every coronation at Westminster, all who should deny the king to be the lawful sovereign of the three realms. This practice is understood to have been

CHAMPLAIN-CHANCE.

first introduced under Richard II., and it continues in which he explains the names and titles of

to make a part of the ceremonial of an English coronation to this day. The name C. was also given to the knight who, during a tournament, had charge to see that no injury or insult should be offered to

the assembled ladies.

CHAMPLAI ́N, a lake separating the states of New York and Vermont, and penetrating, at its north end, about six miles into Lower Canada. It empties itself into the St. Lawrence, about 45 miles below Montreal, by the Sorel or Richelieu. It is navigable throughout for vessels of about 100 tons, having its communications improved by one canal on its own river, and by another to the Hudson. It stretches in lat. from 43° 30' to 45° 6' N., and in long. from 73° to 73° 30' W.; its extreme breadth, however, never exceeding 15 miles. Its principal towns are Whitehall at the south, Plattsburg on the west, and Burlington on the east. Both Lake C., and its tributary, Lake George, have been C., and its tributary, Lake George, have been prominent in the history of the country during the rivalry of France and England before the conquest of 1759-1760; during the revolutionary struggle of 1774-1782; and lastly, during the war of 1812-1814, between Great Britain and the United States.

many of the Pharaohs, written on the monuments in Drovetti's Egyptian Collection at Turin, and attempts to class them into dynasties. His theory of interpretation was much controverted at first, but its importance was recognised by such distinguished scholars as Rosellini, Bunsen, Sir William Gell, and others.

In 1828 he was appointed by Charles X. to accompany a scientific expedition to Egypt, of which de l'Egypte et de la Nubie (Par. 1835–1845). On the results were given by Rosellini in the Monumens his return to Paris, 1830, C. was made a member of the Académie des Inscriptions, &c.; and, in the following year, was appointed to the new chair of Egyptian Antiquities in the College of France; but of lectures, in May 1831, he fell ill, and died, March 4, 1832. According to Silvestre de Sacy, few men, services equal to those which have consecrated to since the birth of letters, have rendered to erudition immortality the name of Champollion.'

soon after the commencement of his intended course

CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JEAN JACQUES, a distinguished French archæologist, was born, 1778, at Figeac, in the department of Lot. After holding in Grenoble the offices of librarian and professor of Greek literature, he was appointed, in 1828, conbut, after the February revolution, was deposed servator of MSS. in the Imperial Library in Paris; from office by Carnot. In 1849, he was appointed, by Louis Napoleon, librarian of the palace of Fontainebleau. Beside the Antiquités de Grenoble (1807), his chief works include the Annales des Lagides and Egypte Ancienne (forming a part of L'Univers Pittoresque); Les Tournois du Roi René, a splendid work, with lithographs by Motte; and several publications of old French documents. Since the death of his younger and more celebrated brother, C. has been employed in editing the MSS. left by that distinguished scholar, and has given an account of them in the Notice sur les Manuscrits Autographes de Champollion le Jeune (Par. 1842). He died May, 1867.

His son, AIMÉ CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, follows the same path of historical antiquarianism, and has published several interesting, useful works.

CHANA'K-KALESSI' (Turkish, 'Pot Castle'), a town of Anatolia, deriving its name from its manufactures of crockery, is situated on the Dardanelles, about 28 miles south-west of Gallipoli. Its castle is the most important on the Dardanelles, which name is sometimes given to the town itself. Pop. some 3000 or 4000.

CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS an illustrious name in modern Egyptian archæology, was born December 23, 1790, at Figeac, in the department of Lot, France. In 1801, he was introduced to Baron Fourier, secretary to the Institut d'Egypte, who initiated him into the science of Egyptian antiquities. In 1807, C. went to Paris, in order to pursue, with more advantage, his oriental studies; and, in 1809, was appointed professor of history in the Lyceum of Grenoble. In 1811, he published his work, L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, intended as the forerunner of a more elaborate work on Egypt, of which only the geographical section appeared, in 1814. In his endeavour to decipher the Rosetta Stone, C. laboured under the error of supposing that in this inscription the hieroglyphics were wholly ideographic, and the demotic and hieratic characters wholly phonetic. Afterwards, he was led to believe that the hieratic characters were of the same nature as the hieroglyphic, and this conviction he expressed in a communication made to the Académie des Inscriptions, in August 1821. In the same year he published his essay, Sur l'Ecriture Hiératique des Anciens Egyptiens (Grenoble), a work which is now scarce. In this essay he continued to assert the common ideographic nature of both hieroglyphic and hieratic CHANCE, in its original and strict meaning, characters. Meanwhile C. had been made acquainted may be defined as that which determines the course with the conclusions of the acute mathematician, of events, in the absence of law, ordinary causation, Dr. Thomas Young (q. v.), respecting the phonetic or providence. Strictly speaking, it is an idea which use of hieroglyphic signs. Without doubt, it was few would now be disposed to admit as correspondthis important discovery, of which Dr. Young, how-ing to anything which really exists; the religious ever, made no great use, that set C. on the right track of investigation, and led to those brilliant results which were regarded by Niebuhr as constituting the greatest discovery of the century. By a comparison of the name of Ptolemy on the Rosetta Stone with that of Cleopatra on the Philensian obelisk, he was enabled to lay the foundation of an alphabet, which he continued to eleborate until it now forms the basis of modern Egyptian archæology. His first decisive discoveries were made known in his celebrated Lettre à Mons. Dacier (Par. 1822), which was followed by the Précis du Système Hieroglyphique (Paris, 1824; second ed. 1828); but his principal work, the Grammaire Egyptienne, was posthumously published in 1836.

In 1824, appeared his Panthéon Egyptien; and, in 1825, his celebrated letters to the Duc de Blacas,

mind excluding it as inconsistent with the belief in the Divine government, and the philosophical mind rejecting it as inconsistent with a recognition of universal laws of causation. As a word, however, it has always been, and always will be popularly accepted; and its use is correct so far as we overlook, or choose for the moment to throw out of view, the more universal connection of events, and regard them as their emergence, on a superficial view, appears to be determined. The idea of C., as referring to some apparently capricious or at least inexplicable cause of an event, distinguishes it from the word probability, or the degree with which the expectation of an event approves itself to a particular mind, the first expressing what metaphysicians would call on objective, and the second a subjective idea. It is clear that C., being

CHANCEL-CHANCELLOR.

only legitimate as an expression in popular parlance | -or if admitted as a term in philosophy, one that would at once lead into the most inextricable problems-is a term which is much too indefinite to admit of any kind of measurement; while what we call probability, or the degree with which an expectation approves itself, owing to certain data pre-chancellors, there were officers in many other capasented to the mind, does, as we shall hereafter see, admit of a kind of measurement which leads to very important consequences. For these reasons, the consideration of what is sometimes called the

CHANCELLOR OF A CATHEDRAL-CHANCERY.

in the lists given in Crawford's Officers of State, aud | Chalmers's Caledonia. On the abolition of the office, a Keeper of the Great Seal was appointed, who acts merely ministerially in affixing it to the writs which pass under it. See GREAT SEAL. CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER. See EXCHEQUER.