CHINESE EMPIRE. stream forms the rapids of St. Louis, the consequent interruption of the navigation naturally rendered La C. a turning point between the maritime and the inland communications. Gradually, however, its importance in this respect has been diminished, if not extinguished, by works between it and Montreal —a canal, a railway, and even improvements in the rapids themselves. CHINESE EMPIRE, a vast territory in Eastern Asia, comprehending five great divisions-viz., 1. Mantchuria (q. v.); 2. Mongolia (q. v.); 3. Turke stan (q. v.); 4. Tibet (q. v. ;) 5. China Proper, or the Eighteen Provinces (Shih-pu-Sang), including the two large islands of Formosa and Haenan-the former being reckoned in the province of Fuh-keen, and the latter as a department of Kwang-tung. from south-west to north-east. The more northerly of these-the Thsin-ling or Blue Mountains-are included between the parallels of 31 and 34°. The southern or Nan-ling chain is a spur of the Himalayas. Commencing in Yun-nan, it bounds Kwangse, Kwang-tung, and Fuh-keen on the north, and passing through the province of Che-keang-where some of its peaks reach the height of 12,000 feetenters the sea at Ning-po; thus forming a continuous barrier-penetrated only by a few steep passes, of which the Mei-kwan or Mei Pass, is the best known-that separates the coast-land of Southeastern China from the rest of the country. This great chain throws off numerous spurs to the south and east, which, dipping into the sea, rise above it as a belt of rugged islands along the southern half of the Chinese seaboard. Of this belt, the Chusan Archipelago is the most northerly portion. The magnificent river-system of China is represented by those noble twin_streams, the Hoang-ho or Yellow River, and the Yang-tze-kiang, which, springing from the same water-shed, the eastern mountains of Tibet, are widely separated in their mid course, but enter the sea within 2° of each other. The former has its source in 35° N. lat., and about 96° E. long.; and after a very tortuous course, empties itself into the ocean in lat. 34°.* It is a 'mighty, impracticable, turbid, furious stream' for the most part, and little adapted for Chinese navigation. But the river most beloved by the Chinese is the Yang-tze-kiang, or 'son of the ocean,'-more correctly translated, the son that spreads'-which name is only applied to it by the natives below the commencement of the delta; for above that it is called simply Ta-kiang or Great River. The basin drained by it is estimated at 750,000 square miles. Of the other rivers that China Proper occupies the eastern slope of the table-lands of Central Asia. In form it approaches to a square, and covers a surface eighteen times as large as Great Britain. It is inhabited by more than 400 millions of the human race, living under the same government, ruled by the same laws, speaking the same language, studying the same literature, possessing a greater homogeneity, a history extending over a longer period, and a more enduring national existence than any other people, whether of ancient or modern times; indeed, when we consider its high antiquity, its peculiar civilisation, its elaborate administrative machinery, its wondrous language, its philosophy and classic literature, its manufacturing industry and natural productions, giving rise to such a gigantic commerce with our own land, China is perhaps the most remarkable country in the world, and is worth a closer and more serious study than has yet been generally accorded to it. China Proper is included between 18° and 40° N. lat. (which takes in the island of Haenan), and 98°-124° E. long. Its coast-water the country, the Peiho in the north, and the line exceeds 2500 miles; and the land-frontier 4400 miles. A line running direct north and south would give a length of 1474 miles; and another at right angles to this, 1355 miles; but one drawn diagonally from its north-eastern extremity through Yun-nan would measure 1669 miles. The area of China Proper is usually given as 1,297,999 square miles; but Dr. Williams considers that the entire dimensions of the 18 provinces, as the Chinese define them, cannot be much under 2,000,000 square miles. All these measurements, however, must be taken as mere approximations. Choo-keang in the south, are the most noteworthy. The principal lakes of China are five in number viz., the Tung-ting-hu, in 113° E. long., with a circumference of about 220 miles; the Poyang-hu, in 116° E. long., 90 miles in length by 20 in breadth; the Hung-tsin-hu, in Keang-su; the Tsau-hu, between Ngankin-fu and Nankin; and the Tai-hu, in 120° E. long. On these lakes, artificially constructed floating-islands, with houses, fields, and inhabitants, animals, and birds, are sometimes seen. The Grand Canal has very greatly facilitated the internal navigation of the country. Until lately the great annual grain fleet, with its 430,000 tons of rice for the use of the capital, passed from the south to the neighbourhood of Pekin by this great water-way; thus avoiding the storms and pirates of the coast, but the alteration already mentioned in the course of the Hoang-ho, has rendered it comparatively useless. It connects Tien-tsin in Chihle with Hang-chow in Che-keang; though the canal proper commences in Shan-tung, and its total length is about 650 miles. Physical Features.-China has a general slope from the mountains of Tibet to the shores of the Pacific. The two principal mountain-chains divide it into three longitudinal basins, drained by those great rivers for which China is famous. Within its provinces are found alluvial plains, fertile river-valleys, large populous towns, as well as thinly inhabited hilly and mountainous regions. To describe its surface more particularly, it may be viewed under its natural divisions of mountainous country, hilly country, and the Great Plain. The first comprehends Another world-famous structure is the Great Wall more than half the region between the meridian 113°-called Wan-li-chang (myriad-mile-wall) by the and Tibet. East of this meridian, and to the south Chinese-which was built by the first emperor of the of the Yang-tze-kiang river, is the hilly country, Tsin dynasty about 220 B. C., as a protection against which includes the provinces of Fuh-keen, Keang- the Tartar tribes. It traverses the northern boundse, Kwang-tung, and a portion of Hu-nan and Hu- ary of China, extending from 31° E. to 15° W. of pih; while to the north-east stretches the Great Pekin, and is carried over the highest hills, through Plain. This latter extends from the Great Wall the deepest valleys, across rivers and every other to 30° N. lat.; a line drawn from King-Chow in natural obstacle. The length of this great barrier Hu-pih to Hwae-king on the Yellow River, may be is, according to M'Culloch, 1250 miles. Including a considered its western limit; and the sea forms its boundary on the east. This vast and generally fertile tract has an area of 210,000 square miles, and supports a population of 177 millions. From the mountains of Tibet two grand ranges stretch across China, having a general direction * The Hoang-ho has recently altered its course, and now enters the sea in a somewhat higher latitude. are not unusual; and hence this river has been called Such changes, causing losses, and entailing expense, 'China's sorrow. CHINESE EMPIRE. parapet of 5 feet, the total height of the wall is 20 feet; thickness of the base, 25 feet; and at the top, 15 feet. Towers or bastions occur at intervals of about 100 yards. These are 40 feet square at the base, and 30 feet at the summit, which is 37 feet, and in some instances 48 or 50 feet, from the ground. Earth enclosed in brickwork forms the mass of the wall; but for more than half its length it is little else than a heap of gravel and rubbish. Geology. The high lands, where are the sources of the great rivers of China, consist of granitic and metamorphic rocks. These are continued round the south and south-east of the country, until they leave a huge basin, through which flow the Yang-tze-kiang and Hoang-ho, occupied by fossiliferous strata. The wild and rugged scenery of the larger portion of China is owing to the predominance of those crystalline and sub-crystalline rocks. The fossiliferous strata exhibit representatives of the various formations. The Paleozoic rocks are but sparingly developed in a narrow stripe which runs from near Pekin, in a south-westerly curve, to nearly the centre of the empire. Cretaceous rocks occur in the valley of the Yang-tze-kiang. Tertiary beds fill up the eastern portion of the immense basin; while extensive districts to the west of this region, extending to the crystalline rocks in the extreme west, are covered with modern detritus. Though no active volcanoes are known to exist in the country, yet indications of volcanic action are not wanting. Salt and hot-water springs are found in Yun-nan, in lat. 25° 35'; and wells of petroleum in Shen-se, lat. 36° 40'. The most famous amongst the minerals of China is jade or the yu-stone, obtained chiefly in Yun-nan. Coal, limestone, and porcelain clays are abundant. Precious stones are said to be met with in some districts. In Yun-nan, gold is washed from the sands of the rivers, and in the same province silver-mines are worked; here, too, is obtained the celebrated pe-tung or white copper. All the commoner metals are likewise found in China. Near the city of Ning-po are extensive stonequarries. grand state-ceremony is performed in its honour. The emperor, accompanied by his great officers of state, repairs to the Sacred Field, and having offered sacrifice on an altar of earth, he traces a furrow with the plough, and his example is followed by princes and ministers. A like solemnity is celebrated by the governor of every province, who represents the emperor. The agricultural system of the Chinese is rude, but effective; and every inch of arable land is carefully cultivated. Spadehusbandry and irrigation are carried on to a great extent. The Chinese have a strong perception of the value of night-soil as a manure; for, whilst in this country thousands of pounds' worth are annually thrown into the Thames, in China it is everywhere saved, bears a high price, and is collected in a manner exceedingly offensive to European notions. In the northern provinces, the cercals are principally maize, barley, and wheat; but in the south, rice is raised in vast quantities, and forms the staple food of the people. Tobacco and the poppy are also raised in considerable quantities. Animals.-Very little is really known of the zoology of China. Of the monkey-tribe the most remarkable is the Cochin-Chinese monkey. Some of the more ferocious of the carnivorous animals still linger in the jungles of Yun-nan, but are Wild cats unknown in the cultivated districts. are common in the forests of the south, and bears are still found in the hills of Shan-se. Of the ruminantia, there are the musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus), the moose-deer, and a few other species. The gold and silver pheasant, the argus pheasant, and other gallinaceous birds, hold a prominent place in the ornithology of China. Fly-catchers, thrushes, grackles, and goat-suckers have their representatives in China, and there are severa! species of crows, jays, and magpies. Water-fow! inhabit the lakes, rivers, and marshes. The larger reptiles are unknown; but tortoises and turtles: abound on the coast, and lizards are plentiful in the south. The ichthyology of China is considered to be one of the richest in the world. Sharks, rays, Vegetable Productions.-Our knowledge of the flora sturgeons, and other cartilaginous fishes, are comof China has been much advanced by the researches mon on the coast; and. the carp formerly was very of Mr. Fortune; and his works contain valuable plentiful in the lakes and rivers. The goldfish notices of the geography, culture, and varieties has been introduced into Europe from China. Of of the tea-plant, and of the botany of the country insects, the arachnidæ are large and numerous; generally. The tea-plant (Thea viridis and Thea indeed, a tree-spider is said to attack small birds. bohea) is the most important vegetable production Locusts often commit extensive ravages. of China. See art. TEA. The tallow-tree (Stillingia | worms are highly valued, and reared in large sebifera), the Dryandra cordata or varnish-tree, the numbers. camphor-tree (Laurus Camphora), the Chinese pine In a country of such vast extent-extending (Pinus Sinensis), the Chinese banyan (Ficus nitida), from 18° to 40° N. lat.-the climate must vary the funereal cypress-introduced into this country greatly. Indeed, as regards both climate and proby Mr. Fortune-and the mulberry, are amongst the ductions, China may be divided into three zones most important trees of China. The cocoa-nut-the northern, the central, and the southern. The and other palms flourish on the southern coast. northern zone extends to the 35th parallel, and Of the bamboo, which grows as far north as lat. 38°, includes the fine provinces of Shang-tung, Chih-le, there are 63 principal varieties; and it is said that Shan-se, Shen-se, and Kan-su. It produces the the bamboos of China are more valuable than her grains, fruits, and animals of Northern Europe. mines, and, next to rice and silk, yield the greatest Here the children are red-cheeked, and the extremes revenue. The various uses to which they are of heat and cold are great. In Chih-le, the winters applied are truly astonishing; and, amongst others, are very severe; and at that season ice a foot thick the bamboo is famous as an instrument of punish- renders the rivers unnavigable. The natural prðment. The fruits of both the tropical and temper- ductions of this and the contiguous northern provate zones-apples, grapes, pomegranates, mangoes, inces are wheat, barley, oats, apples, the hazel-nut, pine-apples, three species of orange, the lichi, &c. and the potato; they are also rich in wood and -are found in the country; and camellias, azaleas, minerals. The central zone, the richest portion of and gardenias are natives of the 'Flowery Land.' China, contains eight provinces-Sze-chuen, KweiThe nymphæa, or water-lily, is greatly prized by the chow, Hu-nan, Hu-pih, Keang-su-and is bounded Chinese, both for ornament and in an economical by the 27th or 28th parallel; tea and silk are its point of view. Agriculture is held in higher estima- characteristic products; the middle portion is the tion in China than, perhaps, any other country granary of China, and the eastern part is celebrated in the world. On the first day of each year, a for its manufactures of silk and cotton. The southern Silk CHINESE EMPIRE. zone embraces five provinces-Yun-nan, Kwang-tung, | to stand before European forces. The Chinese are, Kwang-se, Fuh-keen, and Che-keang. The exchange as a race, unwarlike, fond of peace and domestic of its tropical productions for those of the northern zone is an important branch of the internal commerce of the country. Kwang-tung lies partly within the tropics; and the whole province is tropical, both in climate and productions. Its fruits are oranges, lichees, mangoes, and bananas; rice is its staple grain, and it produces the ground-nut, the sweet potato, and the yam. The following table exhibits the situation, area, and population of the eighteen provinces into which China is divided for administrative purposes: Population. PROVINCES. Pop. per Shan-se, 14,004,210 55,268 444 Ho-nan, 23,037,171 Eastern Provinces Keang-su, Gan-hwuy, 34,168,059 49,461 705 Keang-se, 23,046,999 Che-keang, 26,256,784 Fuh-keen, 14,777,410 53,480 276 Central Provinces Hu-nan, 18,652,507 74,320 251 Southern Provinces Kwang-tung, 19,174,030 Kwang-se, 7,313,895 Yun-nan, 5,561,320 Kwei-chow, 5,288,219 Western Provinces Shen-se, Kan-su, 15,193,125 86.608 175 Sze-chuen, 21,435,678 1,298,079 In 1842 the population of China proper was estimated at 414,686,994; the dependencies, Mantchouria, 3,000,000; Mongolia, 3,000,000; Thian-shan, 1,000,000; Thibet, 11,000,000; Corea, 9,000,000, and Loo Choo, 500,000—a total population of 477,500,000. Inhabitants.-Ethnologically, the Chinese belong to that variety of the human species distinguished by a Mongolian conformation of the head and face, and a monosyllabic language. See CHINESE LANGUAGE, WRITING, AND LITERATURE. A tawny or parchment-coloured skin, black hair, lank and coarse, a thin beard, oblique eyes, and high cheek-bones, are the principal characteristics of the race. The average height of the Chinaman is about equal to that of the European, though his muscular power is not so great; the women are disproportionately small, and have a broad upper face, low nose, and linear eyes. Of the general character of the Chinese, it is not easy to form a fair and impartial judgment; and those who have resided long in the country, and know them well, have arrived at very different conclusions. M. Huc asserts that they are 'destitute of religious feelings and beliefs,' 'sceptical and indifferent to everything that concerns the moral side of man,' 'their whole lives but materialism put in action; ' but 'all this,' says Mr. Meadows, 'is baseless calumny of the higher life of a great portion of the human race. He admits, indeed, that these charges are true of the mass of the Chinese, just as they are true of the English, French, and Americans; but as amongst these there is a large amount of generosity and right feeling, and also a minority higher in nature, actuated by higher motives, aiming at higher aims,' so also, he maintains, is there amongst the Chinese a similar right feeling, and a like minority who live a higher life than the people generally. See HIOUEN-THSANG. As regards valour, their annals record 'deeds akin to the courage of antiquity;' they have no fear of death, commit suicide as the solution of a difficulty, and endure the most cruel tortures with a passive fortitude; but neither their arms nor discipline enable them order, capable of a high degree of organisation and The manners and customs of the Chinese can only here be glanced at. The worship of ancestors is a remarkable and prominent feature in their social life, and is dictated by that principle of filial piety which forms the basis of Chinese society. The rich have in their houses a chamber-a kind of domestic sanctuary-dedicated to their forefathers. Tablets, representing the deceased persons, and inscribed with their names, are here carefully preserved; and at stated seasons, prostrations and ceremonies are performed before them according to the Book of Rites. All Chinese worship from time to time at the tombs of their parents. In everything that relates to death and sepulture, the customs of the Chinese are no less singular. They meet their last enemy with apparent unconcern; but whilst their future state troubles them little, they regard the quality of their coffins as of vital importance, and frequently provide them during their lifetime; indeed, a coffin is reckoned a most acceptable present, and is frequently given by children to their parents. To be happy on earth,' say the Chinese, one must be born in Su-chow, live in Canton, and die in Lianchau' Su-chow being celebrated for the beauty of its women, Canton for its luxury, and Lianchau for furnishing the best wood for coffins. Yet death is never alluded to in direct terms, but indicated CHINESE EMPIRE, The principal manufactures of the Chinese are silk, cotton, linen, aud pottery, for which latter they are especially celebrated. The finest porcelain is made in the province of Keang-se. The Chinese invented printing in the beginning of the 10th c., and in 932 A. D. a printed imperial edition of the sacred books was published. The skill of the Chinese in handicraft is astonishing. Their rich silks and satins, light gauzes, beautiful embroidery, elaborate engraving on wood and stone, delicate filigree-work in gold and silver, carvings on ivory, fine lacquered ware, antique vessels in bronze, and their brilliant colouring on the famous pith paper, command our admiration. but there is a strict separation of the sexes, and | as no Chinaman is his own barber, a great number betrothal is undertaken by the parents or by profes- | of this calling find employment. The Chinaman is sional match-makers. Minute ceremonial observ- very sparing in his ablutions, and appears to be ances regulate every step, and frequently the bride afflicted with a strange hydrophobia; for cold water, and bridegroom see each other on the wedding-day either as a beverage or for washing his for the first time. Women hold a very inferior he holds in abomination. Long nails are fashionperson, position, and are little better than slaves. Poly- able. The costume of the women differs but little gamy is not recognised by law, but secondary from that of the men, and their shoes are the wives are common, especially when the first proves most remarkable part of their toilet. barren. Infanticide, though regarded as a crime, is measures about 34 inches from the heel to the toc. A lady's shoe undoubtedly practised to some extent, as is proved The feet of the Tartar women are left as nature by edicts issued against it; and parents possess made them; but amongst the Chinese, all young almost unlimited authority over their children. The girls of the better classes are crippled by a tyrant intercourse of the Chinese with each other, espe- custom. In early infancy the feet are tightly bound, cially of the upper classes, is regulated by a tedious the four small toes being tucked under the sole, of and elaborate etiquette; indeed, they are the slaves which, after a time, they become a part, and the of custom, and everything is done by precedent. heel is brought forward. The process is at length Many curious instances of Chinese politeness complete; stumps have been substituted for the might be cited. The well-bred host presses many ordinary pedal extremities, and the Chinese lady things on a visitor, which the latter must never totters on her goat's feet. dream of accepting. 'A Chinaman,' says Mr. Oliphant, has wonderful command of feature; he generally looks most pleased when he has least reason to be so, and maintains an expression of imperturbable politeness and amiability, when he is secretly regretting devoutly that he cannot bastinade you to death.' The Le-King, or Book of Rites, regulates Chinese manners, and is one cause of their unchangeableness; for here they are stereotyped and handed down from age to age. The ceremonial usages of China have been estimated at 3000; and one of the tribunals at Pekin -the Board of Rites-is charged with their interpretation. Chinese cookery, in the use of made dishes, more nearly resembles the French than the English. Birds'-nests soup, sharks' fins, deer-sinews, and ducks' tongues, are amongst its delicacies. The wine, or weak spirit (tsew), more correctly speaking, used by the Chinese is made from rice; and from this, again, they distil a stronger spirit, the 'samshoo' of Canton. The former is drunk warm in minute cups at their meals; tea never appears during a repast, though it may be taken before or after. The Chinese have numerous festivals; and perhaps the most remarkable of these is that celebrated at the commencement of the new year, when unbounded festivity prevails. Preparatory to this, debts are settled, and the devout repair to the temples to gain the favour of the gods. The first day of the year may, in one sense, be reckoned the birthday of the whole people, for their ages are dated from it. Visiting is, at the same time, carried on to a great extent, whilst parents and teachers receive the prostrations and salutations of their children or pupils. The festival of the dragon-boats is held on the fifth day of the fifth month; and at the first full moon of the year, the feast of lanterns. In the manufacture of these the Chinese excel; and on the night of the festival, lanterns illuminate each door, wonderful in their variety of form and material. In the matter of dress, the Chinaman exhibits his usual practical sense, and varies the material according to the season, from cotton-wadded or fur-lined coats to the lightest silk, gauze, or grasscloth. On the approach of cold weather, he lights no fire in his dwelling, but puts on additional clothing until the desired temperature is attained. A tunic or kind of loose jacket fitting close round the neck, and a wide short trouser, are his principal garments. Shoes are made of silk or cotton, with thick felt soles. White is the colour of mourning. The Tartar tonsure and braided queue became general with the Mantchu conquest of the country, since which 180 millions of men have the hair removed from their heads at short intervals; and 818 Of the grand modern discoveries in the physical sciences the Chinese are profoundly ignorant, and the study of nature is altogether neglected. The Chinaman objects to be wiser than his forefathers, but spends a lifetime in studying his classical literature and the sages of antiquity; and here is doubtless one great cause of the homogeneity of the race, and the stereotyped nature of the Chinese mind. Of animal physiology and medicine the Chinese have very crude notions, as is shewn by their scheme of the human body, in which the heart is placed in the centre, with the other organs ranged round it, and their unphilosophical theory of the pulse, which plainly demonstrates that they are ignorant of the true circulation of the blood, and the vascular system in man; hence their practice of medicine must be empirical. Chinese physicians believe that man is composed of five elements; that so long as each maintains its due proportion, health is preserved; but should one gain the ascendency, illness follows, and the equilibrium must be restored by proper remedies. Chinese have had the opportunity of practically Acupuncture is practised. The testing the superiority of Western medical science, by the establishment of English and American hospitals, the introduction of vaccination, and by the publication of popular treatises on Physiology and Practical Surgery, &c., by Dr. Hobson, late of Canton. It is worthy of remark, that these books were eagerly sought after, and excited a deep interest amongst their literati; indeed, the Physiology has been twice republished by persons holding high official situations at Canton, and in a preface to the Chinese edition, the publisher observes: 'Our science, indeed, cannot compete with that of the philanthropic author.' Government.-In the centralised autocratic government of China, the emperor is absolute in the empire, the governor in the province, the magistrate in the district. The emperor claims no hereditary divine right, and is not always the eldest son of the CHINESE EMPIRE. preceding monarch; the ablest son is nominated, but his right to the throne as the Teen-tze, or Tien-tze, 'son of heaven,' the Fung-tien, divinely appointed,' can only be established by good government, in accordance with the principles laid down in the national sacred books. If, on the contrary, he violates these principles, the people firmly believe that heaven signifies, by unmistakable signs, that their ruler is not its chosen representative. The rivers rise from their beds, the ground sullenly refuses its fruits, the plains tremble, the hills reel, and the typhoon rages over seas and coasts, all alike uttering a Numbered, numbered, weighed and parted," that requires no interpretation, but is read in anxiety by the people, in dismay and terror by the prince,' who seeks by repentance, and a return to the true principles of the government, to avert his doom. The emperor is absolute as legislator and administrator; but he must legislate in accordance with the general principles acknowledged in the country. He also constitutes, in his own person, the highest criminal court. The Chinese possess a carefully digested code of laws, which is added to and modified from time to time by imperial edicts. Their penal code commenced 2000 years ago, and copies of it are sold at so cheap a rate as to be within reach of people of the humblest means. Death, which the Chinaman prefers to long confinement, is the penalty for a large number of offences, and in ordinary years about 10,000 criminals are executed. Several modes of torture are legal. The emperor is assisted in governing by two councils-1. The Inner or Privy Council, composed of six high officials, three of whom are Chinese and three Mantchus; also ten assistants. The four senior ministers exercise functions corresponding to those of an English prime minister. 2. The General or Strategical Council, which closely resembles our cabinet; being composed of the most influential officers in the capital, who exercise high legislative and executive duties. The decisions of the emperor in council are regularly published in the Pekin Gazette. There are besides, in the capital, six yamuns or public offices, each charged with a distinct department of government; and over all is the Court of General Inspection, or the Censorate, as it is called by foreigners. The mandarins composing this are the eyes and ears of the emperor; for it is their province to see that all officers of the government, provincial or metropolitan, are faithful in the discharge of their respective duties. The administrative machinery of the Chinese is very perfect in its organisation, and demands an attentive consideration for the right understanding of the people and government. In each of the 18 provinces is an imperial delegate or governor, who, besides being at the head of the civil jurisdiction, is commander-in-chief, and possesses the power of life and death for certain capital offences. He is privileged to correspond with the cabinet-council and the emperor. Under the governor are the Superintendent of Provincial Finances, the Provincial Criminal Judge, and the Provincial Educational Examiner; each communicates with his especial board in Pekin. The governor is also assisted by many other judicial and administrative officials. The governmental organisation of each province is complete in itself, but in a few instances two provinces-Kwang-tung and Kwang-se, for instance-form a viceroyalty, over which a governorgeneral, in addition to the governors, exercises authority. Every province is again subdivided into districts, departments, and circuits. The average number of districts in a province is eighty, and each of these is about the size of an English county. A civil functionary, called sometimes the district-magistrate, presides over this division, and is assisted by several subordinate officers. A group of districts-six is the average number for the whole 18 provinces-forms a department, and is ruled by a prefect, who resides in the fu or departmental city. Three departments, on an average, constitute a circuit, of which an intendant (Taoutae) has the charge. The several grades of mandarins, or Chinese government officials (Chinese name, kwan-fu), are distinguished chiefly by a different-coloured ball or button on the top of the cap. There are twelve orders of nobility confined to the imperial house and clan, and also five ancient orders of nobility open to the civil and military servants of the state. The normal government of China is less a despotism than a morally supported autocracy, and it is in principle paternal. What the father is to his family, that the governor, the prefect, and the magistrate are intended to be, each in his own sphere, to the people; whilst the emperor stands in the same relation to the myriad inhabitants of his vast dominions. In ordinary times, the Chinaman enjoys much practical freedom, and can travel through the country without passport, or follow any calling he likes. The Chinese executive system is based on those noteworthy competitive examinations, which are intended to sift out from the millions of educated. Chinese the best and ablest for the public service. The first examination takes place every three years in the capital of each department, when the lowest degree-that of bachelor-is conferred on a certain number of candidates from each district. Triennial examinations are held in the provincial capital, presided over by two examiners from Pekin, at which sometimes as many as 10,000 bachelors present themselves, and compete for the degree of licentiate. Some 1200 obtain it, and these may attend the triennial metropolitan examination at Pekin, when about 200 may hope for the coveted degree of doctor, which insures immediate preferment. Mr. Meadows, the most philosophical, perhaps, of our writers on China, and from whose works the foregoing sketch of the administrative system of the country has been chiefly derived, has entered very fully into what may be termed the philosophy of Chinese government, which he sums up in the following doctrines, and believes them to be deducible from the classic literature of the country, and the true causes of the wonderful duration of the Chinese empire. 1. That the nation must be governed by moral agency, in preference to physical force. 2. That the services of the wisest and ablest men in the nation are indispensable to its good government. 3. That the people have the right to depose a sovereign who, either from active wickedness or vicious indolence, gives cause to oppressive and tyrannical rule. And to these he adds an institution- the system of public-service competitive examinations. But, on the other hand, these examinations, by directing the attention of students solely to the ancient literature of the country, to the exclusion of the physical sciences and inductive philosophy, however efficient in producing that wonderful homogeneity for which the inhabitants of the Central Kingdom are famous, stunt and stereotype the national mind, which, like the dwarfed tree the Chinaman delights to raise in a flower-pot, or the feet of a Chinese girl, can never fully expand Education, as the high road to official employment, to rauk, wealth, and influence, is eagerly sought by all classes. Literary proficiency commands everywhere respect and consideration, and primary instruction penetrates to the the remotest |