HYPOSTASIS-HYPOTHESIS. HYPOSTATIC UNION (Gr. Hypostasis, person), a union of natures or substances so intimate as to constitute one undivided person. The term is used to describe the mysterious union of the divine and human natures in Christ, in virtue whereof, while each nature is complete, even after union, yet each merges its separate personality in the undivided person of the God-man, to which all the actions, whether divine or human, are ascribed. This form of expression was devised for the purpose of excluding the doctrine of a mere moral union held by Nestorius. See MONOPHYSITES, NESTORIANS, TRINITY. HYPOTHEC, a term in the law of Scotland, but not used in England, to denote a lien or security over goods in respect of a debt due by the owner of the goods. Thus, a landlord has a hypothec over the furniture or crops of his tenant in respect of the current rent; so a law-agent or attorney has a hypothec over the title-deeds of his client in respect of his account or bill of costs. In England, these rights are called liens, and are not so liberally allowed. See Paterson's Comp. of E. and S. Lau, s. 594. There is also a hypothec in favour of seamen over the freight in respect of their wages. HYPOTHECATION is the pawning of a ship for necessaries, or to raise money in some critical emergency. conceived to be conveyed, from internal organs. These sensations may, in many instances, be real, and proceed from actual alterations in the structure or functions of the parts supposed to be affected; but they may likewise consist of ordinary sensations, excited and intensified by the act of attention which makes them known to the patient. Neither the experience nor the sufferings of the victims are imaginary, however absurd their errors, and however groundless their apprehensions may be; the disease consists in the exaltation of scrsibility and attention, and in the delusions which originate in that morbid state. A man lives in constant fear of death; he is firmly convinced that he labours under cancer, consumption, disease of the heart, and lives upon drugs; that his stomach, or bowels, are contracted, or the abode of frogs, a fœtus, or an army of soldiers; that his legs are transformed into glass or ice; that his whole body has assumed the shape of a teapot, or the magnitude of a hippopotamus. It is often a precursor of melancholia, as in the case of Cowper the poet, and other kinds of alienation; but it must likewise be regarded as a distinct and independent affection, traceable, generally, to dyspepsia, or disorder of the digestive and assimilative apparatus. It is probable that shades and degrees of this malady may constitute those links which connect partially healthy from absolutely unsound minds. In females, there are often added to the phenomena already described many of the symp- HYPOTHENUSE, the name of that side in a toms of hysteria and great impressionability, and right-angled triangle which is opposite to the right even convulsive affections; there is likewise encoun- angle. The well-known property of the hypothtered the simulation of diseases, the tendency to enuse, that the square described on it is equal to deceive others after having deceived themselves into the sum of the squares described on the other two the belief that they are invalids, and labouring sides, is proved in the famous 47th proposition of under grievous and incurable disorders. They crave the first book of Euclid's Elements, and has, in sympathy and support, as subject to affections the sixth book, been generalised into the following. of the spine, the joints, the lungs. They abstain form: The figure described on the hypothenuse is from food, or devour inedible and disgusting sub- equal to the similar figures described on the other stances; they writhe in what appears excruciating two sides. It is said that the 47th proposition pain, and they voluntarily sustain great suffering was discovered by Pythagoras, who was so overduring the treatment of their fancied ailments. Ajoyed at his good fortune, that he sacrificed a patient of Dr Page, Carlisle, underwent amputation hecatomb to the Muses. Camerer, in his edition of the finger, wrist, forearm, and ultimately of the of Euclid, gives seventeen different demonstrations arm, in order to be relieved of sores which she pro- of this proposition. duced. Certain of the maladies which are pretended, or feared, or fancied, appear to be called into existence under the morbid influence of volition: and there are strong grounds for believing that the concentration of attention upon a particular function, not merely interferes with its exercise, but disturbs the physical condition, and leads to degeneration of the tissue of the organ with which it is connected by capillary congestion, or evolution of nerve-force. -Falret, De l'Hypochondrie et du Suicide (1822); Andrew Combe, On Hypochondriasis, Phrenological Journal, vol. iii. p. 51; Cheyne, The English Malady (1733); Arnold, Observations on Nature, Kinds, &c., of Insanity (1782). HYPO'STASIS (Gr. Hypostasis, subsistence), the term employed by Greek theological writers to designate the distinct subsistence of the three persons of the Trinity. Originally, the meaning of the word was unsettled. It was used by the Fathers of the council of Nice, in the sense of ousia, essence or substance, and this confusion of phraseology supplied the most formidable weapon to the semiArians in the controversy about the Homoousian (q. v.). The use of the word hypostasis, however, was settled at a synod held by Athanasius in 357, in which it was fully distinguished from ousia, and explained as synonymous with prosopon, which the Latins rendered by persona, person. From this time, the word was adopted into the theological language of the Latin Church, in which it is used indiscriminately with persona. HYPOTHESIS. In endeavouring to explain natural phenomena, we have often to assume or imagine a cause, which, in the first instance, we do not know to be the real cause, but which may be established as such when we find that its consequences agree with the phenomenon to be explained. Every genuine theory was at one stage a mere conjecture,. and became a true theory in consequence of being. proved or verified by the proper methods. Thus, when it occurred to Newton that the force of gravity on the earth, as exemplified in falling bodies, might extend to the distance of the moon, and might be the power that compelled it to circle round the earth, instead of going off in a straight line through space, the suggestion was only an hypothesis, until such time as he was able to shew that it accounted exactly for the facts, and then it became a theory. A difference of opinion has arisen as to what constitutes a legitimate hypothesis, there being manifestly some necessary limits to the process of imagining possible causes. The case that has chiefly contributed to make this a question is the celebrated undulatory theory of light, a theory, or hypothesis rather, remarkable not only for the extent to which it explains the facts, but for having led to the discovery of new facts by way of inference from the theory itself. Notwithstanding all this amount of coincidence, the ethereal substance whose undulations are supposed to constitute light in its passage from the sun to the earth, is not known to have a real existence. It is an imaginary element, su HYPOXANTHINE-HYRACOTHERIUM. happily conceived as to express with fidelity a series of extremely complicated phenomena. This was not the character of Newton's hypothesis as to the motion of the moon; the power supposed by him (the earth's gravity) was an actual or existing force, and all he did was to suggest that it extended as far as the moon. Accordingly, M. Auguste Comte and Mr J. S. Mill have laid it down as the condition of a sound scientific hypothesis, that the cause assigned to the phenomenon in question should be either a real cause, or capable of being ascertained to be a real cause, and that the liberty given to the scientific inquirer should be confined to imagining its operation in a particular sphere, and the law and amount of its operation, since both these could be verified by experiment and calculation. On the other hand, Dr Whewell has contended, that an amount of agreement with observed facts, such as has been exemplified by the undulatory hypothesis, is sufficient to establish not merely an hypothesis, but a theory, at least until such a time as some discordant facts arise, when the theory must be modified or abandoned. But whatever name be given to this class of suppositions, it is evident that they must be deemed inferior in scientific value to the other class of suppositions, where no cause or agent is assumed but what is actually known to exist, and where the only question is, the presence of that agent in such manner and amount as to tally with the observed facts. Gravity, heat, electricity, magnetism, are established natural agents, and when we assume any one of these as the cause of some phenomena, we are on safe ground so far, that if it be once shewn that they are actually operative in the case we are dealing with, and that their calculated effect exactly coincides with the observed effect, the explanation is complete and final; no subsequent discovery can disturb a conclusion established in this way. But if we have to assume the very agency itself, or to imagine a power that we have no experience of, the coincidence between the laws of the assumed agency and the laws of the phenomena produces at best but a temporary or provisional evidence, which is liable to be superseded whenever a still better imagined machinery shall be brought forward. Thus, in the case of light, the first hypothesis, that of Newton himself, was a stream or shower of corpuscles; this gave way to the undulatory ether, whose merit lay in embracing the facts more closely; but we have no security against the ultimate preference of some third supposition which shall displace the second, as that did the first; while, perhaps, a day may come when an agency shall be proved to exist capable of explaining the phenomena. Even granting that we must sometimes assume an unknown agent (when an effect seems to be beyond the power of all the recognised forces), yet, in ordinary researches, it is considered a grave objection if the assumed agent be of such a subtle or occult nature, or so far removed from observation, that its existence does not admit of being proved. Such was the doctrine of the Cartesian vortices, and such are any hypotheses as to the shapes, sizes, and distances of the altimate atoms of matter. Such also is the doctrine of nervous fluids, whereby the impulses of mind are supposed to be propagated between the brain and the other parts of the body. HYPOXANTHINE, a substance found in the spleen and muscles of the heart of man, and in the spleen and blood of the ox. It is a white crystalline powder, almost insoluble in cold hydrochloric acid, very slightly soluble in boiling alcohol, and requiring for solution in water 1090 equivalents of cold, or 180 of boiling water. Its solution has a neutral re-action. HYPSILANTIS. See YPSILANTI. HYRA CEUM, a peculiar substance found in the crevices of the rocks of Table Mountain, Cape of Good Hope. It is one or more of the excrements of the Cape Hyrax (Hyrax Capensis). Hyraceum is a blackish-brown viscid material, not unlike soft pitch, having a strong and offensive taste, not unlike castoreum, for which it has been used as a substitute in medicine. At one time, so large a quantity was found as to suggest the idea of its being used as a manure, but the supply was soon exhausted, and only a small quantity is now imported, to meet the demand of the curious pharmaceutist. dermata, belonging to the division Perrysodactyla, HYRACOTHE'RIUM, a genus of fossil Pachythe animals of which are characterised by having an odd number of toes. The genus was founded by Owen on the fragmentary remains of two species found in Lower Eocene strata; a third species froin the same beds has been since described by him from more complete materials, under the name Pliolophus vulpiceps; he considers it only a subgenus, and as we can see no characteristics to separate it generically from the other two, we place it here in a nodule from the Roman cement bed of the as a true hyracothere. The fossil was discovered London Clay near Harwich. It is the most complete Eocene mammalian fossil of the London Clay. It consists of an entire skull and a portion of the rest of the skeleton, including the right humerus and femur, a great part of the left femur, the left tibia, and three metatarsal bones, apparently of the same foot, besides fragments of pelvis, ribs, and vertebræ. The head (fig. A 1 and A 2) is 5 inches long, and 2 inches 2 lines broad; it is slender, tapering Hyracotherium: C.I A1, A2, skull of Hyracotherium (Pliolophus) vulpiceps (onethird natural size). A 3, molar tooth (natural size). B 1, B 2, skull of H. leporinum (one-third natural size). B 3, molar tooth (natural size). C1, portion of lower jaw and tooth of H. cuniculus (natural size). C 2, molar tooth (natural size). gradually from the zygomatic region to the muzzle; the upper outline is straight; the bony rim of the orbit is incomplete behind for about one-fifth of its circumference. The narrow skull and incomplete orbit ally it to the Palæothere; the same form of orbit occurs also in the rhinoceros, and more exactly in the tapir. The straight contour of the skull, and the structure of the nasal aperture, shew affinities with the horse and hyrax. The third molar of the upper jaw (fig. A 3) shews the structure HYRAX-HYSSOP. of the teeth. The teeth, as well as the form high-priest by his mother Alexandra, who ruled of the lower jaw, tell plainly of the herbivorous Judæa herself for the next nine years. After character of the hyracothere. The bones of the her death (69 B. C.), his younger brother, Aristoleg exhibit ungulate affinities, and their form and bulus, a braver and more energetic man, seized proportions are between those of the hyrax and the government, and forced H. to withdraw into the tapir. The second species was founded on a private life. Induced by the Idumæan, Antipater, mutilated cranium (fig. B 1, B 2), rather larger and aided by Aretas, king of Arabia Petræa, he than a hare's, found in the cliffs of London Clay near endeavoured to win back his dominions, but was Herne Bay. It shews a skull very like the first not successful until Pompey began to favour his species, though broader at the orbital region. The cause. After some years of tumultuous fighting, third molar tooth (fig. B 3) has a larger number Aristobulus was poisoned by the partisans of of cones than the same tooth in the tirst species. Ptolemy (49 B. C.), and H., who had for some time The third species was founded on several teeth possessed, if he had not enjoyed, the dignity of which belonged to a smaller animal than either high-priest and ethnarch, was now deprived of the of the others, found in the Eocene sand underlying latter of these offices, for which, in truth, he was the Red Crag at Kyson, in Suffolk. The molar wholly incompetent. Cæsar (47 B. C.), on account (fig. C 2) exhibits a structure similar to that of of the services rendered to him by Antipater, made the others figured. From the same deposit were the latter procurator of Judæa, and thus left in his obtained two teeth belonging to a lower jaw, one hands all the real power, H. busying himself only of them, the third molar, still in its socket, and with the affairs of the priesthood and temple. having a fragment of the jaw attached to it Troubles, however, were in store for him. Antipater (fig. 1). These teeth were considered by Owen was assassinated, and Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, to belong to a quadrumanous animal, and were with the help of the Parthian king, Orodes I., described by him as Macacus Eocanus, at once invaded the land, captured H. by treachery, cut off the first terrestrial mammal which has been found his ears, and thus disqualified him for the office of in the London Clay, and the first quadruman-high-priest, and carried him off to Seleucia on the ous animal hitherto discovered in any country Tigris. Some years later, Herod, son of his old in Tertiary strata so old as the Eocene period.' Since its publication, speculative geologists have made good service of this 'monkey.' Owen has, however, recently stated (Ann. Nat. Hist., Sept. 1862), that the two teeth belong to the third species of hyracothere. HYRAX. See DAMAN. HYRCA'NIA, a district of ancient Asia, bounded on the N. by the Caspian Sea and the Ochus (sometimes called, in consequence, Hyrcanum Mare), on the E. and S. by the Elburz Mountains, which separated it from Parthia, and on the W. by Media. It corresponds with the modern Mazanderán and Asterabad. With the exception of the coast districts, and the valleys among the hills, which produced corn, oil, and wine, it was not a fertile region; dense forests prevailed, through which roamed multitudes of savage animals, the Hyrcanian tiger in particular being celebrated. The inhabitants were of the same stem as the Parthians, and were noted for their wild and rude character. friend Antipater, obtained supreme power in Judæa, and invited the aged H. home to Jerusalem. He was allowed to depart, and for some time lived in ease and comfort, but falling under suspicion of intriguing against Herod, he was put to death (30 B. C.). HYRTL, JOSEPH, a distinguished anatomist, was born in 1811 at Eisenstadt, in Hungary, studied at Vienna, and early acquired eminence both as a scientific anatomist, and upon account of the extreme beauty of his anatomical preparations. He became Professor of Anatomy in Prague in 1837, and at Vienna in 1845. Whilst yet a student, he enriched the Anatomical Museum of Vienna with many preparations. He has contributed not a little to the progress of comparative anatomy, especially that of fishes, and has made the anatomy of the ear a subject of very particular investigation. Besides many articles in medical and scientific journals, he has published a number of above indicated; and a works on the subjects Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen (2 vols. text-book in all the HYRCA'NUS, the name of two Jewish highpriests and princes of the Asmonean family. 1. JOANNES H., son of Simon Maccabeus, who ruled 136-106 B. C., was at first tributary to the Syrians; but on the death of Antiochus, made himself independent, subdued the Samaritans on the north, and forced the Idumæans on the south to adopt the laws and customs of the Jews. He also concluded an alliance with the Romans, or rather confirmed that which his father Simon had previously made; built the strong fortress of Baris on the north-eastern angle of Mount Moriah, and extended his territories almost to the ancient limits of the Davidian monarchy. He is also supposed to have founded the Sanhedrim (q. v.). Originally a Pharisee, he subsequently attached HY'SSOP(H88opus), himself to the party of the Sadducees, who were a genus of plants of anxious to keep on good terms with the Romans, the natural order Labiand who discountenanced the turbulent religious ata, distinguished by patriotism of the Jewish masses. H. was, compara- four straight diverging tively speaking, a just and enlightened ruler, and stamens, and a calyx the country enjoyed great prosperity during his with 15 ribs. The known reign. He left five sons, two of whom, Aristobulus species are few. The and Alexander, governed with the title of king.- Common H. (H. offici2. HYRCANUS II., son of Alexander, and grandson nalis) is a native of the south of Europe and the East. of the preceding, was a feeble prince. On the It is found on the Alps of Austria. It is a haltdeath of his father (78 B. C.), he was appointed shrubby plant, about 1 feet high, the upper part Common Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis). HYSTERIA-HYTHE SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY. of the stems quadrangular, the leaves evergreen and lanceolate, the flowers in one-sided whorled racemes. The flowers are generally of a very beautiful blue. It has an agreeable aromatic odour. It has long been in cultivation for the sake of its leaves and young shoots, which are sometimes used for culinary purposes as a seasoning, but more generally in a dried state as a stomachic and carminative. A syrup made with them is a popular remedy for colds. The virtues of H. depend on a volatile oil. It is very doubtful what plant is the H. of the Bible. It has been supposed to be some species of Phytolacca (q. v.), as P. acinosa, a native of the Himalaya; but of late, strong arguments have been advanced in favour of the common Caper (q. v.).HEDGE H. is Gratiola officinalis. See GRATIOLA. HYSTERIA (so called from the Greek word hystera, the womb) is a disease which simulates so many other diseases, that it is not easy to describe it with the brevity which the limits of this work necessitate. The hysterical fit or paroxysm-the most marked form or manifestation of the disorder is almost, though not exclusively, confined to women, and chiefly to young women. In a severe case, the trunk and limbs are strongly convulsed; the patient struggles violently, retracting and extending her legs, and twisting her body with such force that the aid of three or four strong persons is often required to prevent a slight and apparently feeble girl from injuring herself or others. The head,' says Dr Watson in his Lectures, 'is generally thrown backwards, and the throat projects; the face is flushed; the eyelids are closed and tremulous; the nostrils distended; the jaws often firmly shut; but there is no distortion of the countenance. If the hands are left at liberty, she will often strike her breast repeatedly and quickly, or carry her fingers to her throat, as if to remove some oppression there; or she will sometimes tear her hair, or rend her clothes, or attempt to bite those about her. After a short time, this violent agitation is calmed; but the patient lies panting, and trembling, and starting at the slightest noise or the gentlest touch; or sometimes she remains motionless during the remission, with a fixed eye; till all at once the convulsive movements are renewed; and this alternation of spasm and quiet will go on for a space of time that varies considerably in different cases; and the whole attack frequently terminates in an explosion of tears, and sobs, and convulsive laughter.' In another less frequent form of the affection, the patient suddenly sinks down insensible and without convulsions: after remaining for some time in this state, with flushed cheeks, a turgid neck, and irregular breathing, she recovers consciousness, but remains for some time depressed in spirits and fatigued. During the attack, especially in the first variety, the patient complains of uneasiness in the abdomen, and of a sensation as if a ball were rolling about, and rising first to the region of the stomach, and then to the throat, where she feels as if she were being choked. The abdomen is distended with wind, which moves with a loud rumbling sound along the intestinal canal, and is often discharged by eructation. Towards the close of the fit, but more commonly after it is over, a large quantity of pale limpid urine is discharged. The hysterical fit varies in duration from a quarter of an hour or less to many hours. The persons who suffer from hysteria are commonly young women in whom the process of menstruation is disordered, and who are either naturally feeble, or have been debilitated by disease or want; and in patients of this kind, the hysteria, or the hysterical tendency, is apt to shew itself in mimicking so faithfully many of the most important diseases, that the physician has often great difficulty in determining the true nature of the case. Among the disorders that may be thus simulated by hysteria are, inflammation of the peritoneum (or Peritonitis, q. v.), various forms of palsy, inflammation of the larynx (or Laryngitis, q. v.), inability to swallow (or Dysphagia), painful affection of the breast, disease of the hip and knee joints, and disease of the spine. Many of these cases of pseudo-disease come to a sudden favourable termination under some strong Those who are old mental or moral emotions. enough to recollect the morbid religious excitement that prevailed at the time when Irving and his followers believed in the 'unknown tongues,' can hardly fail to remember the remarkable, or, as many regarded it, the miraculous cure of a young paralytic lady, who was made to believe that if, on a certain day, she prayed for recovery with sufficient faith, her prayer would be answered, and she would recover at once. She did so, and her palsy instantly disappeared. This case, which was regarded by the believers in the movement as a direct answer to prayer, and as inaugurating a new era of miraculous cures, admits of easy and rational explanation by some psychologists. There are various instances on record where, in a similar way, an alarm of fire has instantly cured an hysterical paralysis that had lasted for years. In the cases already noticed, the patient is not guilty of wilfully deceiving the physician; but in other instances they are found to practise the most remarkable impositions, pretending by various frauds to be suffering from spitting of blood, from stone in the bladder, &c., or to be living without food of any kind. Hysteria is a very troublesome affection to deal with, because it is very readily induced by example, or, as Dr Watson terms it, is propagable by moral contagion. If, in a hospital ward or in a factory where many young women are congregated, one girl goes off in a fit, all the others who may happen to have a hysterical tendency will probably follow her example. In such cases, a decided order that the next girl who is attacked shall be treated with the actual cautery, or even with the cold affusion, will often have a marvellous effect in checking the spread of the disorder. During the fit, the treatment to be adopted is to prevent the patient from injuring herself, to loosen her dress, and to admit an abundance of fresh cool air; to dash cold water upon the face and chest; and, if she can swallow, to administer a couple of ounces of the asafoetida mixture, or a drachm of the ammoniated tincture of valerian in a wine-glass of water. After the paroxysm is over, the patient should have an active purge, and the bowels should be kept properly open by aloetic aperients; and the shower-bath, preparations of iron, and tonic treatment generally should be adopted, and all abnormal bodily and mental excitement, such as late parties in hot rooms, novel-reading, &c., should be carefully avoided. HY'STRIX AND HYSTRI'CIDE. In many respects, this affection resembles Epilepsy (q. v.). According to Dr Marshall Hall, the most essential difference is this: that in hysteria, much as the larynx may be affected, it is never closed while in epilepsy, it is closed. Hence, in the former, we have heaving, sighing inspiration; and in the latter, violent, ineffectual efforts at expiration. MUSKETRY, SCHOOL OF. ; CUPINE Sec POR See HYTHE SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY. I THE ninth letter in the alphabets of Western Europe, was called by the Greeks Iota, after its Semitic name (Heb. Jod), which signifies 'hand.' | The oldest forms of the letter, as seen in the Phoenician and Samaritan, have a rude resemblance to a hand with three fingers; but by gradual simplification, the character came to be the smallest in the alphabet, and 'iota' or 'jot' is a synonym for a trifle. The original sound of the letter, and that which is considered its proper sound in all languages except English, is that given to Eng. e in me; with this power, it forms one of the fundamental vowels i, a, u (see A and LETTERS). What is called the long sound of i in Eng. is really the diphthong ai rapidly pronounced. The power that the vowel i, followed by another vowel, has of turning the preceding consonant into a sibilant, has been noticed in regard to the letter C (q. v.); further instances may be seen in such French words as rage, singe, from Lat. rabies, simia. In Lat., there was but one character for the vowel i and the semi-vowel now denoted by the character j. See J. IA'MBIC VERSE, a term applied, in classic prosody, and sometimes in English, to verses consisting of the foot or metre called Iambus, consisting of two syllables, of which the first is short, and the second long (-). Archilochus (q. v.) is the reputed inventor of iambic verse. The English language runs more easily and naturally in this metre than in any other. See METRE, VERSE. The stag |ǎt éve | had drunk | her fill. Lady of the Lake. IA'MBLICHUS, the proper name of several persons in classical antiquity, as-1. A king of Emesa, who, in the civil war, took the part of Antony. 2. A Syrian freedman, who flourished at the end of the reign of Trajan and beginning of that of M. Aurelius (117-169 A.D.). He was instructed by a Babylonian in the language, manners, and literature of Babylon, and wrote the Babylonica, or Loves of Rhodanes and Sinonis, in 16 or 39 books, which has been preserved by Photius, c. xciv., and Leo Allatius. It is the oldest of the novels of antiquity which has reached the present day, but is not of any great merit either as to style or plot. 3. A philosopher who flourished under Constantine about 310 A. D., born of an illustrious and wealthy family at Chalcis, in Cole-Syria, pupil of Anatolius and Porphyry, and of the Neo-Platonic school of Plotinus, whose doctrines he extended. Little is known of his life; but he was followed by a numerous school, who listened with enthusiasm and respect, and who thought that he was inspired, had intercourse with the gods, and could divine and perform miracles. This gave him immense credit. His doctrines were a syncretic mixture of Pythagorean and Platonic ideas, mixed with superstition and magic, and the supposed manifestation of God by ecstasies, and a communication with the spiritual world by ceremonies. One of his great works; On the Choice of Pythagoras (Peri Aireseos Pythagorou) consisted of 10 books, of which there remains the 1st, A Life of Pythagoras, filled with prodigies, and evidently written against Christianity. 2d, An Exhortation to Philosophy (Protreplikoi Logoi eis Philosophian), an ill-arranged introduction to Plato. 3d, On the Common Knowledge of Mathematics (Peri Koines Mathematikes Epistemes), full of fragments of Pythagoras, Philolaus, and Archytas. 4th, On the Arithmetical Introduction of Nicomachus. The 5th and 6th books are lost. The 7th, The Theology of Arithmetic (Ta Theologoumena tes Arithmetikes); the 8th, The History of Music; the 9th, Geometry; the 10th, On the Study of Heavenly Bodies. He also wrote a work on the Soul, commentaries on Plato and Aristotle, another on the complete Chaldæan Philosophy, another on Beginnings, and one on Sacred Images, in which he affirmed that the gods resided in their statues. His celebrated work on the Mysteries (Peri Musterion) is, however, disputed; it is supposed by Meiners not to be written by I.; but is asserted by Tennemann to be the work of this author. It is drawn up as the answer of Abammon, a priest, to a letter addressed to his pupil, Anebo, by Porphyry. It contains many Egyptian doctrines, and esoterical explanations derived from the Hermetic Books, the writings of Bitys and others, mixed with Pythagorean and Neo-Platonic ideas. The style of I. is not careful, and inferior to Porphyry. I. is supposed to have died at Alexandria, 333 A. D.Several other writers of this name are known, as a younger philosopher of the Neo-Platonic school, born at Apamea, and supposed to be a nephew of the preceding, praised by Libanius to Julian the Apostate; another, son of Himerius, mentioned by the same author, and a physician at Constantinople. Eudocia, Violetum, p. 244; Eunapius, Vit. Philo- town of Ecuador, South America, in the department IBE'RIA. See HISPANIA and GEORGIA. I'BEX, the ancient name of the Bouquetin (q. v.), or Steinbock of the Alps; and now, according to some zoologists, of a genus of the goat family, or sub-genus of goat, having the horns flat, and marked with prominent transverse knots in front, whereas those of the true goats are compressed and keeled in front, and rounded behind. The species are all inhabitants of high mountainous regions. The I. of the Caucasus and the I. of the Pyrenees differ a little from the I. of the Alps, and from one another, but the differences may perhaps be regarded as those of varieties rather than of species. The conventional ibex represented in Heraldry resembles the heraldic antelope in all respects, except that the horns are straight and serrated. |