JOUNPUR-JUBILEE. JOUNPU'R, a town in the North-west Provinces of India, is situated on both banks of the Gumti, which is here crossed by an ancient bridge, so strong as to be periodically submerged without injury. Lat. 25° 44′ N., long. 82° 44′ E. This structure is commanded by a fort still older than itself, a work of the latter half of the 14th century. The population is 16,000. J. is the capital of a district of the same name, with an area of 1552 square miles, and about 800,000 inhabitants. Sugar is largely produced. JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, COMTE, a French marshal, born 29th April 1762, at Limoges, where his father was a surgeon. He early entered the army, embraced with great zeal the cause of the Revolution, and soon rose to the rank of a general of division. In September 1793, he obtained the command of the Army of the North, and on 16th October gained an important victory at Wattignies. In 1794 and 1795, he commanded the Army of the Meuse and Sambre, and prosecuted the war with great vigour and success. In 1796, he pushed his way far into Germany, but was driven back by the Archduke Charles; and this discomfiture led to his resignation of his command. In 1799, the Directory intrusted him with the command of the Army of the Danube; but he was defeated by the Archduke Charles at Stockach. Although he opposed the coup d'état of 18th Brumaire, the First Consul employed him, in 1800, in the re-organisation and administration of Piedmont; and on the establishment of the Empire in 1804, he was made a marshal, and a member of the Council of State. He accompanied King Joseph to Naples, and afterwards to Spain, and in his service he was actively employed as a general. He offered his services to Napoleon after his return from Elba. Louis XVIII. made him a count in 1815. In 1819, he was made a peer of France; but his republican principles led him to enter heartily into the revolution of 1830. He lived and died poor. His death took place on Alexander Selkirk, a bucaneer, from the fishing- It was to institution among the Hebrews (Leviticus xxv.), by JUBILEE, THE YEAR OF (Heb. Yobel), a peculiar which, every fiftieth (not forty-ninth) year, the land that in the interval had passed out of the possession of those to whom it originally belonged was restored to them, and all who had been reduced to poverty, and obliged to hire themselves out as servants, were released from their bondage; no less were (Jos. Ant. iii. 12. 3) all debts remitted. The (q. v.), and the land was completely to be left to jubilee forms, as it were, an exalted Sabbatical Year itself in the former as in the latter. The design of this institution was chiefly the restoration of the prevent the growth of an oligarchy of landowners. equilibrium in the families and tribes. and the total impoverishment of some families; as well as to increase the fertility of the soil and the growth of the population. It was proclaimed at the end of the harvest-time, like the sabbatical year, on the tenth day of the seventh month-the day of atonement-by the yobel (a kind of horn), hence also its name. There is no trace in the whole history of the Hebrews down to the Babylonian exile that the jubilee had ever been observed: after the JOUSTS, exercises of arms and horsemanship, return, however, it appears to have been rigorously performed in the middle ages by knights and nobles. kept, like the sabbatical year, for some time at least; In the joust, the combatants engaged one another but, from its general impracticability, it must soon singly, each against his antagonist, and not in a have fallen into disuse. When the sabbatical year troop, as in the Tournament (q. v.). The number was de facto repealed by Hillel's Prosbol (a legal of courses to be run and strokes to be given was document entitling the creditor to claim his debt generally three, but sometimes a larger number. during this period), mention is no longer made of the The weapon most in use in the joust was the lance, yobel. The speculations of modern critics on the posbut sometimes the battle-axe and sword were sibility of the yobel, and on the date of its inauguraemployed. To direct the lance anywhere but at tion, cannot prevail against the undeniable fact that the body of the antagonist, was reckoned foul play. it has been kept, and also that it is much more in In the joust of peace, or joute de plaisance, a foot-harmony with the primitive theocratic character of encounter preceded the mounted combat. In the 15th c., the usages of jousting had come to differ in different countries to such an extent, that an elaborate treatise was written in explanation of the various modes, distinguishing the characteristic differences. 23d November 1833. JOWLOPPED. See JELLOPPED. the Mosaic institutions-according to which all the land was held as a kind of loan from Jehovah, who alone had an absolute right over it-than with those of any later period, to which it otherwise would have to be referred. JUBILEE, or JUBILEE YEAR, an institution of the Roman Catholic Church, the name of which is borrowed from that of the Jewish jubilee. The JUAN FERNANDEZ, called also MAS-A- Catholic jubilee is of two kinds-'ordinary' and TIERRA, a rocky island in the Pacific Ocean, about 'extraordinary.' The ordinary jubilee is that which 400 miles off Valparaiso, on the coast of Chili, to is celebrated at stated intervals, the length of which which it belongs. It is 18 miles long, 6 miles broad, has varied at different times. Its origin is traced to and is for the most part covered with high rocky Pope Boniface VIII., who issued, for the year 1300, peaks, the highest of which, Yungu, is about 4000 a bull granting a plenary indulgence to all pilgrimfeet above sea-level. There are also numerous and visitors of Rome during that year, on condition of fertile valleys, which yield oats, turnips, apples, their penitently confessing their sins, and visiting strawberries, melons, peaches, figs, grapes, sandal- the church of St. Peter and St. Paul, fifteen times if wood, and other varieties of timber. Numbers of strangers, and thirty times if residents of the city. wild goats wander on the cliffs. A few settlers The invitation was accepted with marvellous enthufrom the United States and Tahiti hold the island siasm. Innumerable troops of pilgrims from every under lease from the Chilian government. Here part of the church flocked to Rome. Giovanni JUDÆA-JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL. JUDE, EPISTLE OF, one of the smallest and least important books in the canon of the New Testa ment, was placed among the Antilegomena (Doubtful Writings) by the primitive church, while some even considered it spurious. It was not made use of by the Asiatic churches until the 4th c., and does not appear to have been known in the West until towards the end of the 2d. Even those who quote it do so with hesitation, such as Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, and Jerome. At the Reformation, similar suspicions revived, and were entertained first by Luther and Calvin, and afterwards by the Magdeburg Centuriators and Grotius. In modern times, the tide of critical opinion has run strongly against its canonicity. Villani, a contemporary chronicler, states that the of both species is very beautiful, veined with black, constant number of pilgrims in Rome, not reckoning and takes an excellent polish. those who were on the road going or returning, during the entire year, never fell below 200,000. As instituted by Boniface, the jubilee was to have been held every hundredth year. Clement VI., in obedience to an earnest request from the people of Rome, abridged the time to fifty years. His jubilee accordingly took place in 1350, and was even more numerously attended than that of Boniface; the average number of pilgrims, until the heats of summer suspended their frequency, being, according to Matthew Villani, no fewer than 1,000,000! The term of interval was still further abridged by Urban VI., and again by Paul II., who, in 1470, ordered that thenceforward each twenty-fifth year should be held as jubilee-an arrangement which has continued ever since to regulate the ordinary jubilee. Paul II. extended still more, in another way, the spiritual advantages of the jubilee, by dispensing with the personal pilgrimage to Rome, and granting the indulgence to all who should visit any church in their own country designated for the purpose, and should, if their means permitted, contribute a sum towards the expenses of the Holy Wars. The substitution by Leo X. of the fund for building St Peter's Church for that of the Holy War, and the abusive and scandalous proceedings of many of those appointed to preach the Indulgence (q. v.), were among the proximate causes of the Reformation. In later jubilee years, the pilgrimages to Rome gradually diminished in frequency, the indulgence being, for the most part, obtained by the performance of the prescribed works at home; but the observance itself has been punctually maintained at each recurring period, with the single exception of the year 1800, in which, owing to the vacancy of the holy see, and the troubles of the times, it was not held. The extraordinary jubilee is ordered by the pope out of the regular period, either on his accession, or on some occasion of public calamity, or in some critical condition of the fortunes of the church; one of the conditions for obtaining the indulgence in such cases being the recitation of certain stated prayers for the particular necessity in which the jubilee originated. JUDÆ'A. See PALESTINE. JU'DAH (Heb. Yehuda, the Bepraised One') was the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, and founder of the greatest and most numerous of the twelve tribes. In the march through the wilderness, it had the post of honour-the van-assigned to it; and tradition narrates that its standard was a lion's whelp, with the words: Arise, O Lord, and let thine enemies be scattered!' After the conquest of Canaan, its territories stretched from the Dead Sea on the east to the Mediterranean on the west (though the Philistines long held possession of the fertile district west of the mountains of Judah), and from Jerusalem (excluding that city) on the north to the land of the Amalekites on the south. The capital of the tribe was Hebron. JUDAIZERS. See EBIONITES. JUDAS TREE (Cercis), a genus of trees of the natural order Leguminosa, sub-order Casalpiniew. The European J. T. (C. Siliquastrum) is a native of the south of Europe, and of the warmer temperate parts of Asia. It has almost orbicular, very obtuse leaves. The flowers, which are rose-coloured, appear before the leaves. There is a legend that Judas hanged himself on a tree of this kind. The American J. T. (C. Canadensis) is very similar, but has acuminate leaves. The flower-beds of the former are frequently pickled in vinegar. The wood 'Lord.' In JUDGE is the generic descriptive name given to those who are invested with the power of judging and deciding causes in the highest courts of common law. In Great Britain-though it is otherwise in America-it is not usual to designate the highest class of judges by the epithet of judge, and British lawyers never do so. Thus, instead of saying Judge Blackstone, Judge Pollock, Judge Eldon, the proper description is-Mr Justice Blackstone, Chief Baron Pollock, Lord Chancellor Eldon, &c., according to the particular court in which they presided. Scotland, the usual prefix to the name of a judge is Lord; and the judges there, on their appointment, often assume new titles in addition to the prefix In England, the judges of the superior courts are only called lords while they sit in court, and are so addressed by counsel, but not elsewhere. The practice has long been for the crown to confer the honour of knighthood on all the judges of the superior courts of law and equity in England, but not in Ireland or Scotland. All the superior judges are appointed by the crown, and since 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2, have held their offices during good behaviour; since 1 Geo. III. c. 23, they have also continued to hold their appointments notwithstanding the demise of the crown. They can only be removed from their office on the address of both Houses of Parliament. They are all, except the. Master of the Rolls, disqualified from sitting in the House of Commons. Judges have no privileges over other persons in respect of their obeying the. law, except that the common-law judges in England have the privilege of suing and being sued in their own court, though not of judging in their own cases. The term judge has also been appropriated as the proper descriptive title of the judges of the county courts established in England in 1846.-Judge Ordinary, in English law, is the descriptive title of one judge only-viz., the judge of the Divorce and Probate Court. In Scotland, the phrase is often applied to all judges, superior and inferior, whenever they have a fixed and determinate jurisdiction, in contradistinction to commissioners, who have an occasional and temporary judicial authority delegated to them. JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL, the supreme judge, under the Mutiny Act and Articles of War, of the proceedings of courts-martial. This officer is also the adviser, in legal matters, of the Commanderin-Chief and Secretary of State for War. Before confirmation, the sentences of all courts-martial, with the evidence adduced, are submitted to him; and it is for him to represent to the commanderin-chief any illegality of procedure, or other circumstances rendering it undesirable that the Queen should be advised to confirm the court's decision. The judge-advocate-general receives a salary of JUDGES JUDGMENT. urgency. £2000, and is a member of the House of Commons chambers all the year round to dispose of these apand of the ministry-changing, of course, with the plications, which are chiefly matters of form, but of latter. As it is essential that the judge-advocategeneral should have an intimate acquaintance with the military law, as well as with the general law of the land, he is provided with an assistant or deputy, whose office is permanent, and who is selected from among barristers of eminence. JUDGMENT is, in English Law, the term usually applied to the final determination of a commonlaw court in an action, and when the litigation is at an end. In the courts of equity, the more usual corresponding term is a decree or order, and The Deputy-Judge-Advocate is an officer holding in criminal and Admiralty courts, a sentence. All a temporary commission as public prosecutor in judgments of the superior courts are, as a general every court-martial. He must be an officer of intel-rule, capable of being appealed against (see APPEAL). ligence, as it is part of his duty to examine and When a judgment is not appealed against within a cross-examine witnesses, to warn the members of certain time allowed for the purpose, then it is final, the court of any illegality in their proceedings, and and binding on the parties. If the judgment is generally to fulfil, in the limited area of the court, registered, it will have the effect of preventing the the functions which belong to the judge-advocate-judgment debtor from selling or alienating his lands, general in regard to the whole army. JUDGES, BOOK OF (Heb. Shoftim), a canonical book of the Old Testament, recording the achievements of those heroes who, at different periods in the early history of the Hebrews, before the consolidation of the government under a monarchy, from Joshua to Samuel, arose to deliver their countrymen from the oppressions of neighbouring nations, but only three of whom, Deborah, Eli, and Samuel, were Judges in our sense of the word. The contents of the book have given rise to much criticism. It cannot be said to be a history, properly speaking. The events recorded in it do not follow each other chronologically, nor is there any other order to be perceived in their arrangement. It is rather a collection of detached historical traditions from the time of the Hebrew republic -probably redacted in the commencement of the reign of David--from ancient poems and popular sagas. It exhibits (whether with a royalistic tendency, as has been supposed by some, or in order to point the moral that however deeply sunk a people-emphatically the people-might be in slavery or idolatry, or both, God would always send them a deliverer from either at the right time) the lawless and ungodly state of Israel during the greater part of this period, and the evil consequences their intimate connection with the idolatrous nations around them brought upon them. The book naturally falls into two portions-the first, up to chapter xvi., containing the heroic deeds of the single 'judges; the second, from chapter xvii., the two accounts of the idol of Micah, and of the crime of Benjamin. The space of time over which the book extends has of old been hotly contested: that it comprises no less than 300 years (cf. xi. 26) is, how ever, almost the only point on which we can feel certain, since there is no doubt that many of the events recorded in the book did not follow upon one another, but fell in the same period: a circumstance which chronologers generally have failed to take into account. The book itself differs consider ably from the other historical books of the Bible by its simplicity and originality. That most of the heroic adventures related contain-sometimes, perhaps, under a highly poetical guise-true historical facts, has been doubted by but a very small number of critics. Ancient traditions make Samuel the author, or rather redactor of the book, and there is certainly little to be said against. and much for, this supposition. Compare Ewald, Wette, Rosenmüller, Studer, Keil, &c. See JEWS. JUDGE'S CHAMBERS means the place where a single common-law judge sits near Chancery Lane, London, in an informal manner, to hear attorneys make applications of an unimportant nature arising out of actions pending in court. If the judge refuse, or decide wrongly, there is an appeal to the court of which he is a judge. In general, a judge sits at but in general has no such effect on his goods and chattels or personal estate, except money invested in government stock. In order to make a judgment effectual in an action of debt, if the debtor refuses to pay, a further process is necessary on the part of the creditor, called Execution (q. v.). In Scotland, judgment is usually called a Decree (q. v.), and judgment by default is called a decree in absence. JUDGMENT. This familiar word of every-day discourse has a technical meaning in Logic, to which corresponds its acceptation as the name of a faculty of the mind. A judgment,' in logic, is an affirmation of some kind or other, as 'snow is white,' 'man is mortal.' The contrast to it is a mere notion, as white, mountain, mortality. In a judgment, two notions must always enter, but this is not the whole; there must be some declaration coupling the two together, a function performed in all cases by a verb. A complete meaning, as expressed in a grammatical sentence, is a judgment. designations for the same thing are-proposition, assertion, predication. Other The intellectual faculty called Judgment has reference to the logical force of the word, and means the power of forming judgments, and by implication, the further power of determining them to be true or false. This last function is perhaps what is most prominently implied in the faculty, as commonly understood. The intellectual power of judging, when probed to its deepest foundations in the mind, resolves itself into one of two things-the discrimination of difference, or the perception of agreement in the midst of difference (see INTELLECT). A judge in a court of law finds that a case comes under, or does not come under, a certain statute; which finding constitutes his decision. A scientific man decides a theory to be true by a certain extent of coincidence with observed fact. An artist approves or disapproves a work of art by its agreeing or disagreeing with his standard, or those previous productions that have settled his conception of excellence in that species. JUDGMENT (in Theology). The doctrine of a judgment after death has always been associated with the belief in man's immortality, and is maintained as a doctrine of natural religion on the ground of that responsibility of which conscience always more or less distinctly testifies, and of the evident absence of a due proportion of rewards and punish ments to human actions in this life. This doctrine, however, as a doctrine of the Christian religion, contains many things of which there is no evidence apart from revelation. Thus, we are told of a day or time of judgment, when, in great solemnity, and in presence of an assembled universe, the judgment shall be pronounced; also, that the Lord Jesus Christ is to appear in glory as judge. As a doctrine of revelation, the doctrine of a final judgment is JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF THE PRIVY-COUNCIL-JUGGLERS. also brought into close connection with that of the Resurrection (q. v.) of the dead. JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF THE PRIVYCOUNCIL, those members of the privy-council who sit as a court of justice in the hearing of appeals, &c. See PRIVY-COUNCIL. JUDICIAL DECLARATION, in Scotch Law, means a declaration made by one of the parties to a suit, and who has been specially ordered by the court to be examined on a particular point. It is not a statement made on oath. In England, the phrase is seldom used, though the same result is obtained by what are called admissions of the parties. JUDICIAL FACTOR, in Scotch Law, is a person appointed by the Court of Session, on special application, as a guardian to protect the interests of minors, absent parties, and lunatics. In England and Ireland, the corresponding officers are called receivers or trustees, according to circumstances. JUDICIAL RATIFICATION, in Scotch Law, means the declaration made by a married woman in the absence of her husband, before a justice of the peace, to the effect that a disposition or deed of alienation of her heritable property has been made without coercion or fear on the part of her husband, and voluntarily on her part. A notary and two witnesses must also be present, and the former indorses on the deed a memorandum of the ratification. The object is to remove objections which might otherwise be made to the validity of the deed. In England, a corresponding process is called an acknowledgment of a deed by a married woman. JUDICIAL REMIT, in Scotch Law, is a reference by a court or judge of a cause, or part of a cause, to the decision of an arbiter or nominee, such as an engineer or accountant. The matter referred is generally some technical matter in which the referee is specially skilled. In England, the corresponding phrase is a reference to an arbitrator or expert to report. JUDICIAL SEPARATION, in English Law, is the separation of two married persons by order of the Court of Divorce. Married persons may, if they please, mutually agree to live separate, and they may enter into a deed of separation for that purpose, which to some extent is recognised as valid by courts of equity. This is called voluntary separation. But, in the eye of the law, two married persons living apart are still married, and retain the status of married persons, and must sue and be sued in all respects the same as if they were still cohabiting. And a deed of separation is always revocable by the parties, though to some extent binding on each, if the other do not consent to renew the cohabitation. But when the parties have not mutually consented to separate, one of them can compel a judicial separation for certain grounds of misconduct. Thus, either party may apply on the ground of adultery, or cruelty, or desertion without cause for two years and upwards. The kind of cruelty which has been held a ground of judicial separation is difficult of definition. The consequences of a judicial separation are as follow. The parties, not being divorced, cannot marry again; but there is no longer the duty of cohabiting. Part of the decree may consist of an award of a certain income to the wife after separation, and the court may make orders as to the custody and maintenance of children. But, irrespective of this, the wife becomes, to all intents and purposes as regards her future property, in the same position as if she were unmarried. On the other hand, the husband is no longer responsible for maintaining his wife, except so far as he may have been ordered to pay her alimony, and he is not liable for her future debts. These last consequences have been declared in England since 1857, when the law was materially improved on the subject, and a new Divorce Court established. In Scotland, the law has also been recently changed, and now nearly coincides with the English law in many respects, this improvement being made by the Conjugal Rights' Act, 24 and 25 Vict. c. 86. By that act, whenever a decree of separation a mensa et thoro is obtained at the instance of the wife, all property which she may acquire, or which may devolve upon her, is held entirely separate from and independent of her husband; she can bequeath it by will as if he was dead. She can also enter into contracts, and sue and be sued in her own name, and the husband is no longer liable for necessaries or her debts, except so far as he is bound by the decree of separation to pay to her aliment. As regards the grounds of judicial separation in Scotland, they are nearly the same, being described by Mr Bell in his Principles thus: whenever life is endangered, or there is fair and reasonable ground of apprehension of personal violence, or there is continued annoyance, wearing out and exhausting the party, or there are adulterous practices. It will, however, be found that the grounds of divorce are more ample in Scotland than in England. See MARRIAGE. JUDITH, the heroine of an apocryphal and fictitious book (probably of the 2d c. B. C.; Movers, Ewald, &c.) called by her name, is represented as a beautiful Jewess of Bethulia, who perils her life and chastity in the tent of Holofernes, general of Nebuchadnezzar, in order to save her native town, by the assassination of the Assyrian commander. This she achieves, and escapes with the head of Holofernes to Bethulia. Her townsmen are inspired with a sudden enthusiasm, rush out upon the The tale is enemy, and completely defeat them. not mentioned by Josephus; and has, from an early period, been held to be an allegory; but it seems more probable that it is a legend founded on some real fact. It has frequently furnished poets and painters with subjects. JUGGERNAUT. See JAGGERNAUT. JUGGLERS (Fr. jongleurs), a term now almost synonymous with conjurer, and applied to persons who perform tricks of legerdemain, originally desig nated the professional musicians who attended the troubadours and trouvères of Provence and the north of France, either singing their poems, or, if they sung them themselves, accompanying them with an instrument, which was reckoned beneath the dignity of the poet himself. The word is derived from the medieval Latin joculator; in Provençal, joglar, joglador; in old French, jonglère or jongléor ; in modern French, jongleur. These musicians soon began to be also kept in the service of kings and princes, whence they received the name of menestrela or minstrels (Lat. minister, a servant). The profession was at this time an honourable one, and good endowments were devoted to the maintenance of minstrels; and when the art of the minstrel ceased to be exclusively employed for the entertainment of courts, those of this profession formed a separate guild in some towns, as in Paris. But it gradually lost respectability. Rope-dancers, and all who sought to gratify the populace by sleight of hand or feats of agility, were designated by the name jongleur, until it becomes restricted to its present acceptation. The ancient Romans had their conjurers or wonder-workers (praestigiatores), their throwers of knives (ventilatores), and their players JUGLANS JULIAN CROSS. with balls and rings (pilarii). But the greatest proficients in everything of this kind are and have for many ages been the Hindus and Chinese. JUGLANS AND JUGLANDACEE. See WALNUT. JUGURTHA, king of Numidia, son of Mastanabal, who was a natural son of Masinissa, was carefully educated along with Adherbal and Hiempsal, the sons of his uncle Micipsa, who succeeded Masinissa on the throne. After Micipsa's death, J. soon caused Hiempsal to be murdered (118 B. C.), and Adherbal fled to Rome. J. succeeded in bribing great part of the Roman senate, and obtained a decision in his favour, freeing him from the charge of the murder of Hiempsal, and assigning him a larger share of the kingdom than was given to Adherbal (117 B. C.). But J. soon invaded Adherbal's dominions; and notwithstanding injunctions by the Romans to the contrary, besieged him in the town of Cirta (112 B. C.), and caused him and the Romans who were captured with him to be put to death with horrible tortures. Hereupon, war was declared against J. by the Roman people; but, by bribing the generals, J. contrived for years to baffle the At last the consul, Q. Cæcilius Metellus, proving inaccessible to bribes, defeated him in 109 and 108 B. C., so that he was compelled to flee to the Mauritanian king, Bocchus. Marius, who succeeded Metellus in the command, carried on the war against J. and Bocchus, till at last Bocchus delivered up J. to the Romans, who exhibited him at Rome in the triumph of Marius (104 B. C.), and then threw him into prison to die of hunger. J. has obtained greater prominence in history than he deserves, on account of Sallust's having written the history of the Roman campaigns Roman power. against him. JU'JUBE (Zizyphus), a genus of spiny and deciduous shrubs and small trees of the natural order Rhamnacea. The species are pretty numerous. The COMMON J. (Z. vulgaris) of the south of Europe, Syria, &c., is a low tree, which produces a fruit resembling an olive in shape and size, red, or sometimes yellow when ripe. The fruit is dried as a sweetmeat, and forms an article of commerce. Syrup of Jujubes is used in coughs, fevers, &c.; but the J. paste, or Pâte de J., of the shops of Britain is made of gum-arabic and sugar, without any of the dried jelly of this fruit. The J. of India (Z. Jujuba) is a similar small tree, with round or oblong fruit, sometimes of the size of a hen's egg.-A Chinese species of J. (Z. nitida), has a very pleasant yellow fruit about an inch long; and other species not much inferior are found in Africa, South America, and other warm countries.-The LOTUS (Z. Lotus), a shrub two or three feet high, a native of Persia, the north of Africa, &c., produces in great abundance a fruit about as large as a sloe, and with a large stone, but having a sweet farinaceous pulp, which the natives of some parts of Africa make into cakes resembling gingerbread. A kind of wine is sometimes made from it.-Z. Spina Christi, another native of the countries near the Mediterranean, is sometimes said to be the plant from the branches of which our Saviour's crown of thorns was made, and is therefore called CHRIST'S THORN and JEWS' THORN, names which, for the same reason, are also given to Paliurus aculeatus. The fruit is about the size of a sloe, oblong, and pleasantly acidulous. JULIAN, surnamed the Apostate, on account of his renunciation of Christianity, Roman emperor 361 363 A. D., was born at Constantinople 17th November 331, and was the son of Julius Constantius, the brother of Constantine the Great. His proper name was Flavius Claudius Julianus. He and his brother Gallus, who were too young to be dangerous, were spared when Constantius II., son of Constantine, massacred the rest of the imperial family. They were, however, removed to a castle in Cappadocia, where they were subjected to a system of rigorous espionage. J.'s life was very miserable, and the monkish education which he received produced no other result than a strong detestation of the religion professed by his tormentors. He was fond of literature and speculation, and he instinctively turned away from the rude asceticism, gloomy piety, and sians, to the cheerfulness, refinement, and pure intel barbarous janglings of Homoousians and Homoiou lectual meditativeness of the old Greek philosophers. Some of his teachers appear to have been (secretly) Pagans, for the sudden change in the state religion brought about by Constantine had necessitated a great deal of hypocrisy, especially among scholars At the age of 20, J. was and government officials. at heart a disbeliever in the divine origin of Christianity. On the death of his brother Gallus, he was removed by Constantius to Milan, but was subsequently allowed to go to Athens, the home of Greek learning, where he gave himself up to philosophical pursuits, and enjoyed that cultivated society which jealous and suspicious-now conferred on him the he so highly relished. The emperor-though still title of Cæsar, and sent him to Gaul to protect it from the incursions of the Germans. J. defeated the Alemanni at Strasburg (357 A. D.), and compelled the Franks to make peace. His internal administration in Gaul was mild and judicious. His popularity, in consequence, became very great, and when Constantius ordered him to set out for the East, J.'s soldiers rose in insurrection, and proclaimed their favourite emperor, who most reluctantly acceded to their demands. The death of Constantius at Mopsocrene, in Cilicia, 3d November, 361 A. D., removed the only obstacle out of his way; and on the 11th of December he made a triumphal entrance into Constantinople. He now publicly avowed himself a pagan, but surprised both Chris tians and pagans by his edict of toleration. Yet he was not absolutely impartial, for he chose most of his officers from the professed followers of the old religion, and compelled the Christians to contributə to the restoration of the heathen temples. In 362 A.D., he made great preparations at Antioch, in the hope of bringing the war with the Persians to a successful termination; and in the following year advanced to Ctesiphon and across the Tigris, but want of provisions and treachery necessitated his retreat. He was followed and attacked by the enemy, who were repeatedly repulsed, but in one of the engagements he was mortally wounded by an arrow, and died 26th June 363.-J. was both a great monarch and a great man. His rule, compared with that of many of the so-called Christian emperors, was just, liberal, and humane; and though only 32 years of age when he perished, he had composed a great number of orations, letters, satires, and even poems (collected and published by Spanheim in 1696). Among his lost works are his Refutation of the Christian Religion, and Memoirs of his German Campaigns, and his Diary. The cause of J.'s opposition to Christianity has been already indicated. We may say further, in elucidation of this important point, that J. appears to have been more attached to philosophy than religion, and that he more readily apprehended as truth what commended itself to the intellect, than what spoke to the heart. JULIAN CALENDAR. See CALENDAR. JULIAN CROSS, or CROSS OF ST JULIAN, a cross crosslet placed saltire-ways. |