JULIAN EPOCH. JULIAN EPOCH-JULUS. See CHRONOLOGY. JULIAN YEAR. See YEAR. JULIEN, STANISLAS-AIGNAN, the first Chinese scholar in Europe, was born at Orleans, in France, 21st September, 1799, and in 1823 became a pupil of Abel Remusat, who had recently been appointed to deliver a course of lectures on Chinese. In less than a year, he had made himself master of the principal difficulties of the language, and actually executed (in Latin) a translation of the great Chinese philosopher, Mencius, which was published at the expense of the Asiatic Society of Paris (2 vols. 1824), and pronounced to be faultless. From this time, his labours have been chiefly directed to the languages and literature of the far East. Ancient and modern Chinese, Mantchu, Sanscrit, the Mongolian tongues, are familiar to hin; although, at the same time, he is said to know almost the whole body of European languages. His translations (into French) embrace the most important works in all departments of Chinese literature. He has given specimens of the Chinese drama in his Hoei-lan-ki (The Circle of Chalk, 1832) and his Tchao-chi-koueul (The Chinese Orphan, 1834); of Chinese romances, by his White and Blue, or the two Snake Fairies (1834), and several other pieces which appeared in Salmigondis and the Constitutionnel. J. is also the first who has succeeded in translating Chinese poetry well -the constant use of allegory, and allusion to facts not known to Europeans, rendering it nearly unintelligible. But more valuable still than those purely literary productions, are his translations of the great works that enable us to understand the religion and philosophy of the Chinese, such as the Book of Rewards and Punishments (1835), in which are contained the doctrines of Tao-sse, the Book of the Way and of Virtue (1841) by Lao-tseu, written in the 6th C. B. C., and forming the oldest and most illustrious monument of Chinese philosophy; and above all, the history of the Life and Travels of Hiouen-Tsang (1852), a work of immense importance for the earlier history and geography of India, and the knowledge of Buddhism. But not content with these brilliant labours, J. has sought to instruct us concerning the industry and arts of the Chinese, in a variety of treatises, of which we may mention his Summary of the Principal Chinese Treatises upon the Culture of Mulberry Trees and Silk-worms (1837), and his Treatise on the art of Manufacturing Porcelain (1856). He is also reported to have the materials prepared for a great Chinese dictionary. On the death of Rémusat, he became his successor at the College de France, and in 1855 president of the college. He is also conservator of the Bibliothèque Impériale, and is specially charged with the oversight of the Chinese department. JU'LIUS, the name of three popes, of whom the second and third deserve to be noticed.-J. II., originally Cardinal Della Rovere, a nephew of Sixtus IV., was born at Albizzola, near Savona. He was vehemently opposed during his cardinalate to the designs of Alexander VI. for the aggrandisement of his family, and one of his earliest measures on his election to the pontificate, in 1503, was to resume possession of the duchy of the Romagna, which had been bestowed upon Cæsar Borgia. J. was himself beyond all suspicion of nepotism or selfish designs of aggrandisement; but his public career during his pontificate was almost entirely devoted to political and military enterprises for the complete re-estab lishment of the papal sovereignty in its ancient territory-Bologna, Ferrara, &c., and for the extinction of foreign domination and foreign influence in Italy. In pursuing his designs, for the purpose of compelling from the republic of Venice the restitution of the papal provinces on the Adriatic, J. not only entered into the league of Cambray with the emperor Maximilian and Louis XII. of France, but had recourse to spiritual arms, by placing the republic under the ban of the church; and on the submission of Venice, apprehending the ambitious designs of Louis, he withdrew from the league, and entered into an opposite alliance, the Holy League,' to which Spain, England, and Switzerland were parties. Hence arose his bitter quarrel with Louis XII., in which the latter attempted, but ineffectually, to enlist the sympathies of the church against the pope. The Council of Pisa, which was convened under Louis's influence, was an utter failure; and the opposing council, fifth of the Lateran, assembled by J., but not brought to a close during his lifetime, completely frustrated the designs of Louis. It is alleged that, in his hatred of France, J. was desirous of drawing even the Turks into the league; but this allegation is negatived by his entire career, one of the main features of which was a design for a holy war, in which he himself should take the command. As an ecclesiastical ruler, J. has little to recommend him in the eyes of churchmen. As a political sovereign, he is described by Ranke as a noble soul, full of lofty plans for the glory and weal of Italy;' and Professor Leo considers him, with all his defects, as one of the noblest characters of that age in Italy. He was a liberal and judicious patron of art, and a friend of the rising literature of the time. He died February 22, 1513.-J. III., a native of Monte San Savino, near Arezzo, was known before his elevation to the pontificate as Cardinal del Monte. He was one of the four legates of the pope under whom the Council of Trent was opened; and after his election to the papacy in 1550, he himself re-opened (in 1551) that council, which had been suspended for upwards of two years. He is connected with English history as having sent Cardinal Pole to organise with Mary the reunion of the kingdom with Rome; but his general government of the church is marked by no very striking events, and his private character is sullied by the taint of nepotism. He died March 23, 1555. the Doab of the same name between the Sutlej and JU'LLUNDER, a city of the Punjab, stands in the Beas, in lat. 31° 21' N., and long. 75° 31' E. Having once been the capital of the Lodi-Afghans, it is surrounded by a vast number of large and bourhood is remarkably productive; and the place, The soil of the neighmagnificent mausoleums. faller, as it is, from its former greatness, still contains 40,000 inhabitants. JULUS, or IULUS, a genus of Myriapoda (q. v.), of the order Chilognatha. The whole of this order JULY JUNGLE-FOWL. more numerous-some having 120 pair-and are so weak that the animal seems to glide along on its belly, the feet moving like a wavy fringe on each side. The body is nearly cylindrical, not flattened. On any alarm, the animal rolls itself up in a coil. The Juli have not the jaws perforated as a poison duct, like centipedes. They inhabit moist and dark places, and feed chiefly on decaying vegetable substances, sometimes also on decaying animal substances. JULY', the seventh month of the year in our calendar, fifth in the Roman calendar, where it was called Quintilis (the fifth). Originally, it contained 36 days, but was reduced by Romulus to 31, by Numa to 30, but was restored to 31 days by Julius Cæsar, in honour of whom it was named July (Lat. Julius), on account of his birth having happened on the 12th of this month. It was called Maed-monath, or mead-month, and litha-aeftera, or after-mild. month, by the Anglo-Saxons. JUMBUSER, a town of British India, presidency of Bengal, is situated in the district of Bharuch, and 26 miles north-west of the town of that name. Pop. 10,000, who are principally employed in the cotton, grain, and coarse cloth trade. JU'MNA, the principal feeder of the Ganges, is perhaps the only Indian river of the first class which has its course wholly in Hindustân-the Indus, Sutlej, Ganges, and Brahmaputra all rising in Tibet. Its source, at a height of 10,849 feet above the sea, is in lat. 31° N., and long. 78° 32′ E., at the south-west base of the Jumnotri Peaks; and, after flowing 680 miles chiefly in a south-east direction, it joins the Ganges at Allahabad. After its first 100 miles, during which it receives many affluents, of which the Touse is the largest, it enters the plain of Hindustan in lat. 30 20' N., and long. 77° 38′ E., having still an altitude of 1276 feet above the sea. Below this point, it is joined by many considerable streams: the Chumbul, the Sind, the Betwa, and the Cane on the right; and the Hindon, the Seengoor, and the Rind on the left. All the way downwards, the J. is generally shallow, and, excepting as to descending rafts, unfit for navigation. By artificial means, however, its waters have been rendered doubly available both for commerce and for agriculture. From either bank, a canal has been drawn at once for the use of inland craft and for the purposes of irrigation. The one on the right side, begun in 1356, leaves the main channel a short distance below the point of its emerging from the mountains; while the one on the left side, commenced in 1824, takes its departure a little further down, near the village of Fyzabad. Both of them rejoin the parent stream at Delhi. Historically and politically, the J. occupies a more prominent position than the Ganges itself above their junction. The former was necessarily the first to cross the path of every invader from the north-west; and hence on it were built both Agra and Delhi, the two capitals of the Mussulman conquerors of India. JUMNO TRI, hot springs near the source of the Jumna, in lat. 30° 59′ N., and long. 78° 35′ E., 10,849 feet above the sea. Their temperature is 1047 F., nearly that of boiling water at their elevation. They are overhung by three connected mountains known as the Jumnotri Peaks, whose altitudes respectively are 21,155, 20,916, and 20,122 feet. JU'NCEÆ, or JUNCA'CEÆ, a natural order of endogenous plants, herbaceous, generally perennial, with creeping root-stock; narrow, often fistular leaves; regular flowers; the perianth 6-partite; the stamens six; the fruit a 3-valved capsule. This order is nearly allied to Liliacea, notwithstanding very great difference of aspect for rushes (Juncus) are the best known examples of it. The species, about 200 in number, are mostly natives of cold and temperate climates. JUNE, the sixth month of the year in our calendar, but the fourth among the Romans. It consisted originally of 26 days, to which four were added by Romulus, one taken away by Numa, and the month again lengthened to 30 days by Julius Cæsar, since whose time no variation has taken place. The Anglo-Saxons called this month seur monath, or dry-month, and midsumer-monath. He died at JUNG, JOHANN HEINRICH, generally called JUNG STILLING, an author, the events of whose life and whose gifts of imagination render him worthy of notice, although at one time his merits were greatly over-estimated. He was born of poor parents at Imgrund, in Nassau, 12th December 1740, and after trying various occupations, became a student of medicine at Strasburg, where he lived in intimacy with Goethe, who conceived a great liking for him, on account of his simple, pure, affectionate nature, settled as a medical practitioner at Elberfeld, and distinguished himself as an operator for cataract. He is said to have improved the eyesight of more than 2000 persons. J. subsequently held professorships at Marburg and Heidelberg. Carlsruhe, 2d April 1817. His first publication was an autobiography, H. Stilling's Jugend, Jünglingsjahre, Wanderschaft, Lehrjahre, Häusliches Leben und Alter (3 vols. Berlin, 1777—1778), which attracted much attention, and was followed by other publications from time to time, continuing the history of the author's career. In religion, J. represents a class by no means uncommon in Germany-viz., the pietistic rationalists, men who put little stress upon the (written) word of God, but are full of veneration (often degenerating, however, into a mere sentimental enthusiasm) for the spiritual truths of Christianity. J.'s collected works were published (1838) at Stuttgart in 14 vols. JUNGERMA'NNIA, a Linnæan genus of cryp togamous plants, containing a great number of species, which some modern botanists have divided into many genera, and some have even formed into an order, Jungermanniaceœ, although it is more generally regarded as constituting a sub-order of Hepatica (q. v.). The distinctive characters of the sub-order are that the spore-cases open by four valves, and that the spores are mixed with elaters. The species much resemble mosses in appearance. Many are natives of Britain, some of them very common in moist places. The tropical species are very numerous, and some of them are to be found even on the young shoots and leaves of plants. JUNGFRAU (the Maiden), one of the highest mountains of the Bernese Alps, rises on the boundaryline between the cantons of Bern and Valais, and attains a height of 13,720 feet. It received its name either from the unsullied purity and dazzling brightness of the snow by which it is covered, or from the fact that until recently no traveller had ever reached its highest point. In 1828, its summit was attained by six peasants from Grindelwald; and in 1841, by Prof. Agassiz and Prof. Edward Forbes, accompanied by others. JUNGLE-FOWL, the name given by the Australian colonists to a bird (Megapodius tumulus), which has also been called the MEGAPODE, totally JUNIPER-JUNIUS. with water. The medicinal properties of J. depend on it; six drops are a dose.-SPANISH J. (J. oxycedrus) grows in arid situations in the countries around the Mediterranean Sea. Its fruit is about the size of a hazel-nut; and from its fruit and wood is procured an essential oil of disagreeable odour, called Huile de Cade (q. v.), which is used in veterinary practice, particularly as a cure for scab in sheep. -VIRGINIAN J. (J. Virginiana), the RED CEDAR of North America, is an evergreen tree, often 30-50 feet high, of conical form, with horizontal branches and very small leaves; a native of North America, from Lake Champlain to the Gulf of Mexico. It grows in sandy or rocky places. It is often planted in pleasure-grounds in Europe, and succeeds well in Britain. The berries are small and bright blue. The heart-wood is of a beautiful red colour, and is valued by turners, coopers, &c. It is imported into England for making pencils. There are often found on the branches fungous excrescences called Cedar Apples, which have been recommended as a vermifuge.-The BERMUDAS CEDAR (J. Bermudiana) is a native of the Bermudas, a lofty tree, with very fragrant reddish-brown wood, which is used for furniture, pencil-making, &c., and also for lining cabinets, its flavour preventing the attacks of moths and other insects.-The Himalaya Mountains produce several species of J., trees of considerable size, beautiful appearance, and valuable wood. The only species of J. which is a native of Britain is the Common J., and it is found chiefly in the more mountainous parts.-The SWEDISH J. of our shrubberies is merely a variety of the common juniper. different from the jungle-fowl of India. See FOWL. 0839. It is limpid and nearly colourless. It is It belongs to the family Megapodidae. All the obtained by distilling the unripe fruit, or the twigs, species are large birds, with short wings and tail, and of slow, heavy flight. They are remarkable for the thickness of their legs (tarsi), and their long and thick toes; and for their habit of heaping up mounds of earth, decayed leaves, &c., in which they lay their eggs, which are hatched by the heat produced by fermentation. The Australian J. makes heaps sometimes fifteen feet high, and sixty feet in circumference at the base, under the shade of thick trees or shrubs, where the heat of the sun may not evaporate the moisture. In these heaps, it makes holes of several feet in depth, in which to deposit its eggs. How the young birds emerge, is not yet known, nor if they are assisted by the parent birds. The mounds of the J. were at first supposed to be sepulchral tumuli. The J. is mostly of a brownish colour. Its size is rather less than that of the common domestic fowl. The propensity to heap up earth is very early manifested by young birds. JUNIPER (Juniperus), a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order Conifera, sub-order Cupressiner, having unisexual flowers, the male and female generally on separate plants, and the fruit a fleshy galbule (popularly a berry), containing three small nuts. The species are all evergreen, and have small, narrow, rigid leaves, which are opposite, or in whorls of three or four, or imbricated in four rows. They are natives chiefly of temperate and cold regions, and are found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.-The COMMON J. (J. communis) is found in all parts of Europe and the north of Asia, and in the northern parts of North America. Only in favourable circumstances does it become a tree of 15, 20, or at most 30 feet in height, and in general it is only a shrub from 2 to 6 feet high. The fruit takes two years to ripen; it is round, of a bluish-black colour, with a whitish bloom; it is of the size of a small currant, and is produced in great abundance. The little nuts or stones of the fruit have on the shell three glands, which abound, especially before ripening, in an essential oil-Oil of J. -present also in the wood, particularly in the young wood. The wood is yellowish red, brownish in the heart, hard, and fragrant. When of sufficient size, it is much valued by turners. It is also used for veneering. The dry twigs, roots, and berries are used for fumigation. The berries have a strong and peculiar flavour. They are much used for flavouring gin, which derives its name from them (see GIN). They also enter into several medicinal preparations, being stimulant, sudorific, and diuretic. The bark of J. may be made into ropes, and in some parts of the Highlands of Scotland, the roots are woven into the coarse baskets which are used for potatoes, peats, &c.-Oil of J. is lighter than water; specific gravity, C Common Juniper (J. communis): a, branchlet with male flowers; b. part of branchlet with female flowers; c, unripe fruit. JUNIUS, LETTERS OF, a famous series of political letters signed Junius,' which appeared in a London newspaper, The Public Advertiser, during the last year of the administration of the Duke of Grafton and the first two years of that of Lord North. They were 44 in number; besides which, are to be reckoned as proceeding from the same pen 15 signed Philo-Junius, 62 business-letters (mostly very short) addressed to his publisher, Woodfall, and 10 to Wilkes (privately); and in addition, 113 letters under various signatures. The first of the letters of J., published January 21, 1769, treats of the State of the Nation,' and may be said to strike the key-note of all the subsequent correspondence. In it, the author singles out several leading members of the ministry, and boldly denounces their inefficiency; and the last of the letters, dated January 21, 1772, closes somewhat suddenly the long indictment against ministers in the same spirit in which it had begun. No sooner did the first Junius appear, than the court-party took the alarm. An invisible and dreaded censor was evidently moving among them-one who, though as yet the days of parliamentary reports were still far off, seemed cognizant of all the proceedings of both Houses, who not only knew intimately the public career of ministers, but was fully informed regarding the follies and the crimes of their private character. Sir W. Draper, who entered into controversy with this unknown adversary, was in the end overmastered, and reduced to mere humble complaint and confession. Duke of Bedford, Lord Mansfield, and chief of all, the Duke of Grafton, writhed beneath his lashthe last of these being more indebted for immortality to the splendid sarcasm of Junius than to any measure which it was his fortune to introduce. It cannot, however, be denied that the hatreds of Junius, though springing for the most part from his detestation of injustice, and his contempt for incapacity, were increased and imbittered by party The JUNK-JUNO AND HERA. incapable of much seamanship or speed, have proved themselves seaworthy on voyages extending even to America and Europe. The junk of Japan is considerably superior to that in use in China. Junk, in the British navy, is a familiar term for the salt meat supplied to vessels for long voyages-the name being probably derived from the fact that it becomes as hard and tough as old rope, pieces of which are officially styled junk. spirit and personal dislike. The style of these JUNOT-JURA. called the Matronalia, and was celebrated on the 1st of March. Her month (June) was considered the most propitious for fruitful marriages; and even yet, after eighteen centuries of Christianity, this old Roman faith lingers superstitiously in the popular mind. JUNOT, ANDOCHE, Duke of Abrantes, and Marshal of France, was born October 23, 1771, at Bussy-le-Grand, in Côte-d'Or, entered the army as a volunteer in 1792, and distinguished himself in the early wars of the Republic. In 1798, he followed Napoleon to Egypt, was there created general of brigade, and particularly distinguished himself at Nazareth, where, at the head of 300 cavalry, he put to flight 10,000 Turks, after a conflict of fourteen hours' duration. In 1807, he was appointed to the command of the army of Portugal. His army, after undergoing dreadful privations, reached Lisbon, and J., with the greatest expedition, made himself master of all the strong places in the kingdom, and reorganised his army. For his brilliant conduct at this time he was created Duke of Abrantes, and appointed governor of Portugal; but being defeated by Wellington at Vimeira, he concluded a convention at Cintra, returned to France, and subsequently served in Germany, Spain, Portugal, and Russia. In 1812, he was disgraced by Napoleon for a supposed want of energy, and sent to govern Illyria. This, along with other causes, produced mental derangement. He was taken to his father's house at Montbard, near Dijon, and two hours after his arrival, precipitated himself from a window (22d July 1813), and fractured his thigh-bone. Amputation was performed, but J. franticly tore off the bandages, and died some days afterwards.-His wife, LAURE PERRON, the celebrated Duchess of Abrantes, has gained a reputation in the literary world by her Mémoires ou Souvenirs historiques sur Napoléon, la Révolution, le Directoire, le Consulat, l'Empire et la Restauration (Paris, 1831-1835), and by several minor works. JUNTA, i. e., an association, the name given in Spain to a body of persons combined for any political or civil object. The term was formerly applied more exclusively to assemblies of representatives of the people meeting without authority of the sovereign, but has been extended to those of the most strictly legal character. JUPATÍ PALM (Raphia tædigera), a palm which grows on rich alluvial tide-flooded lands near the mouth of the Amazon. The stem is seldom more than six or eight feet high; but the leaves are often 50 or 60 feet long, rise vertically from the summit of the stem, and bend out on every side in graceful curves, forming a magnificent plume. The leaves are perhaps the largest in the vegetable kingdom; they are pinnate, the leaflets about four feet long. The leaf-stalks, which are often twelve or fifteen feet long below the first leaflets, and four or five inches in diameter, perfectly straight and cylindrical, are almost like birds' quills in strength and lightness, when dried, of a soft substance, with a thin, hard, glossy outer covering. They are used for various purposes, as for laths, window-blinds, &c. The interior part is soft enough to be used instead of cork. hurler), and Serenator (the Weather-clearer). But he possessed still higher and diviner attributes. The future was spread out clearly before his all-seeing eye; the destinies of men were in his hands, and events were but the expression of his omnipotent will. But he was not careless of mankind. He revealed himself in a variety of ways to them, and taught men to interpret these mystic and symbolic revelations. Wonderful appearances in the sky, or unwonted circumstances happening on the earth, were the media of his communications; hence his surname of Prodigialis (the Sender of Prodigies). As the national god of the Roman people, he went with them into battle (like the Jehovah of the Hebrews), fought for them, procured them victory, and, generally speaking, was their protector at home and abroad. This conception of J. is shewn in such names as Imperator (the Ruler), Victor (the Conqueror), Stator (the Stayer or Stander-by). The strong sense of morality which marked the old Romans also found its expression in their view of the character of the best and greatest (optimus maximus) of their gods. J. was the guardian of law, justice, and virtue; oaths and all solemn engagements were made as to him (in the sight of God,' as we say). He had temples erected to him at Rome under all his different names; but the principal one was that on the Capitol, whence he had the title of Capitolinus, and where, with beautiful significance, the statues of Fides (Faithfulness) and Victoria (VieWhen consuls tory) were placed beside his own. or other magistrates entered on the duties of their office, or when the army was about to open a campaign, or a general returned victorious from war, sacrifices were solemnly offered to J. and his favour invoked. When the Romans began to know the religion and literature of Greece, they foolishly sought to identify their own noble, majestic, and gravely upright J. with the slippery, lustful, and immoral Zeus of the Greeks. Hence have originated much confusion and misconception. See ZEUS. JUPITER. See PLANETS; SOLAR SYSTEM. JUPITER SERA'PIS, TEMPLE OF. The ruins of this temple at Puzzuoli, near Naples, afford a remarkable instance of the changes which have taken and are taking place in the relative position of the land and water on the earth. Only three of the original forty-six pillars exist. They rise out of the water, the pavement of the temple being at present submerged; but they bear evidence that they have been at one time submerged to half their height, which is 42 feet. The base of the pillars as high as twelve feet is quite smooth; for the next nine feet they are penetrated by a boring shell, which is still active in the neighbouring rocks. The water must have covered this portion of the pillars, and while the molluscs were busy, the lower twelve feet must have been protected from their ravages by being buried in mud. The changes of level have been so gradual that the pillars have not been moved from their original position. JUPON, or JUST-AU-CORPS, a surcoat. The name jupon is chiefly applied to the short tight form of that military garment in use in the 14th century. JU'RA, a range of mountains, of a peculiar limestone formation, known as the Jura Limestone, JUPITER, or JUPPITER, in Roman Mythology, extending from the angle formed by the Rhone was the greatest of the gods. The name is a modi-and the Ain, in a north-easterly direction (with a fication of Diovis pater, or Diespiter (Dioris, or Dies gradually declining elevation), for more than 450 divum, heaven), i. e., the Father of Heaven or miles, to the upper part of the course of the the Heavenly Father. As such, J. had all power Maine. The Rhine, breaking through it between over the phenomena of the skies; hence his numer- Schaffhausen and Basel, divides it into two parts, ous epithets, such as Pluvius (the Rain-giver), the Swiss or French, and the German Jura. Tonans (the Thunderer), Fulminator (the Lightning- loftiest peaks are Reculet de Toiry, Grand-Colombier, = The |