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COTONEASTER

suffering. He died 24th July 1842. Cotman's fame as a water-colour landscapist has grown steadily; indeed Mr Cosmo Monkhouse opines that 'taken altogether he was the most gifted of the Norwich School, wider in range, a finer draughtsman, and of more refined and cultivated individuality, than "Old Crome." His second son, Joseph John Cotman (1814-78), was also a landscape-painter. Cotoneaster, a genus of Rosacea, sub-order Pomeæ, closely allied to the hawthorn and medlar. The species are shrubs or small trees, some evergreen; with simple entire leaves, more or less woolly beneath; small flowers in lateral cymes; and small, unpalatable, but bright-coloured fruit, persistent in winter. C. vulgaris (said to be found wild in a single locality in Wales) and other species are common mountain plants of central Europe and Asia, but have been largely introduced as ornamental shrubs, the evergreen species (C. rotundifolia, &c.) being especially used for covering walls and rockwork.

Cotopaxi, the loftiest active volcano in the world, is in Ecuador, in the eastern chain of the Andes, and about 50 miles S. of the equator. Humboldt gave the height at 18,880 feet; Reiss, the first to ascend it (in 1872), at 19,500 feet; Whymper, who ascended in 1880 to the edge of the crater, at 19,550 feet above the sea. The valley at its foot, however, is itself 9000 feet high. The upper part of Cotopaxi, a perfect cone of 4400 feet, is entirely covered with snow, save that the verge of the crater is a bare parapet of rock. Below the snow is a well-marked barren belt covered with lichens and shrubs, below which again is forest. Smoke issues from the summit; sounds as of explosions are occasionally heard; and above, a fiery glow is often visible by night. Lava rarely flows even during eruptions, but flame, smoke, and immense volumes of ashes are then ejected; and when the heat melts large masses of the snow lying on the sides, destructive floods are occasioned in the valleys beneath. The first eruption recorded was in 1533. Others followed in 1698, 1743, 1744, and 1768, the most terrible of all. On the latter occasion ashes were carried 130 miles distance, and thickly covered an extensive area. Cotopaxi was quiet till 1851. In 1854, 1855, and 1856 there were again eruptions of more or less violence.

Cotroné, a fortified town of Italy, 35 miles NE. of Catanzaro by rail, built on a point of land projecting into the sea. Pop. 9649.

Cotswold Hills. See COTESWOLD. Cotta, a publishing-house established at Tübingen in 1640, and still one of the most flourishing in Germany. The family came originally from Italy. Its most prominent members have been (1) Johann Friedrich (1701-79), a learned writer and theological professor at Tübingen, Göttingen, and Jena; (2) his grandson, Johann Friedrich, Freiherr Cotta von Cottendorf, born at Stuttgart in 1764, educated at Tübingen, and for some time an advocate. In 1787 he undertook the family business; and in 1795 established the famous Horen, a liter ary journal, under the editorship of Schiller, with the friendly co-operation of Goethe and Herder. Already in 1793 he had sketched out the plan for the Allgemeine Zeitung, which has appeared since 1798. The Almanach für Damen (1798) and other periodicals were no less successful. Cotta now began likewise to publish the works of Schiller, Goethe, Herder, Fichte, Schelling, Jean Paul, Tieck, Voss, the Humboldts, &c., establishing thereby a claim to the gratitude of the wide literary world. In the seventy years ending in 1864, the house had paid to Schiller and his heirs no less a sum than 528,966 marks, to Goethe and his heirs

COTTON

in the same period, 865,554 marks. In 1810 he changed his residence to Stuttgart, and in 1824 introduced the first steam printing press into Bavaria. He died 29th December 1832. In the diet of Würtemberg, and afterwards as president of the Second Chamber, he was ever the fearless defender of constitutional rights; he was, too, the first Würtemberg proprietor who abolished servitude on his estates. He was succeeded by his son, Georg (1796-1863); and he by his son Georg Astolf (1833-76).

Cottage, a small dwelling-house, especially of labourers, varying greatly in size, appearance, and comfort. Since 1860 especially, public attention has been called to the deplorable state of the cottages in many parts of Great Britain, and the desire to secure their improvement has led to the publication of many works on Cottage Architecture, including those of Birch (1872), Young (1872), Bicknell (1877), Shand (1878), Bruce (1886), and Menzies (1886).

Cottbus, or KOTTBUS, a town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, situated on the Spree, 71 miles SE. of Berlin by rail. It is an important railway junction and a busy mercantile town, with manufactures of woollen cloth, carpets, hats, linen, jute, leather, and tobacco. Pop. (1875) 22,642; (1885) 28,249; (1890) 34,910.

Cotters. See CROFTER.

Cottin, SOPHIE (née Ristaud), French authoress, born at Tonneins, in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, in 1773, married at seventeen a Parisian banker, who left her a childless widow at twenty. For comfort she turned to letters, wrote verses and a lengthy history, and in fiction won unfading laurels. She had already written Claire d'Albe (1799), Malvina (1800), Amélie Mansfield (1803), and Mathilde (1805), when in 1806 she wrote Elisabeth, ou les Exilés de Sibérie, a story stamped with such real unsought pathos that it has been translated into most European languages. Madame Cottin died 25th August 1807.

Cottle, JOSEPH, bookseller and author, born in 1770, was well read in English literature when he started business in Bristol in 1791. He took kindly to Coleridge and Southey, to whom he was introduced by Robert Lovell, and offered them each 30 guineas for their poems; and in addition 50 guineas for Southey's Joan of Arc, with 13 guineas to Cole. ridge for every additional 100 lines of poetry he might write. The poems thus arranged for appeared in 1796. Cottle also became responsible in a business, and partly in a pecuniary, sense for Coleridge's Watchman; and an introduction to Wordsworth led to his publication of the afterwards famous Lyrical Ballads (1798). Cottle was intrusted with the delicate duty of handing over De Quincey's generous donation of £300 to Coleridge, to whom he also addressed some serious expostulations as to his indulgence in opium, which drew replies from the poet. Cottle's injudicious and unmerciful exposure of Coleridge in his interesting but sometimes inaccurate Early Recollections (1837) has been condemned. He wrote, several volumes of verse; the fourth edition of his Malvern Hills (1829) conHe retired from busitains several prose essays. ness in 1799, and died 7th June 1853.-- His elder brother, AMOS SIMON COTTLE (1768-1800), educated at Bristol and Cambridge, wrote various works, including Icelandic Poetry (1797), which contains a poetical address to him from Southey.

Cotton, an important vegetable fibre, extensively cultivated in various parts of the globe within the 35th parallels of latitude.

(1) Botanical and Commercial Classifications.— Cotton is the produce of all the species of the

genus Gossypium, which belongs to the natural order Malvaceae, and is thus allied to Mallow, Hollyhock, Hibiscus, &c., the general resemblance to which is very apparent both in the foliage and flowers. The species are partly shrubs, partly herbaceous, and either perennial or annual; they are natives of the tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and America, but their cultivation has extended far into the temperate zones. They all have leaves with three to five lobes, which in a very young state are often sprinkled with black points, and rather large flowers, which are mostly yellow, but sometimes in whole or in part purple; the flowers very soon fall off; they grow singly from the axils of the leaves, and are surrounded at the base by three large, heart-shaped, cut or toothed, involucral leaves or bracts, partially growing together as one. The fruit is a 3-5-celled capsule, springing open when ripe by 3-5 valves, and containing numerous seeds enveloped in cotton, which is generally white, but sometimes yellow, and issues elastically from the capsule after it has burst open. The fibres are long cylindrico-spiral tubes of from both to th of an inch in breadth, which when platted adhere firmly together. The wool is also very susceptible of dyeing. The figure shows the manner in which the cotton escapes from the capsule. Some

Cotton (Gossypium Barbadense):

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The

in height, bears a yellow flower, and the seeds are small, black, and quite smooth, and the wool is easily separated therefrom; but when sown far inland, away from the saline influences of the coast, the seeds increase in size, and become covered with innumerable short hairs. A large percentage of the crops raised in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, &c., are also varieties of this species, though, owing to climatic influences, the plant is smaller (4 to 6 feet in height), and the wool is shorter in staple ( to 1 inch), and less easily separated from the seeds than Sea Island. In 1888 the commercial value of the latter kind varied from 10d. to 21d. per lb., rare specimens sometimes realising 2s. 6d. to 3s. per fb. better descriptions of Egyptian cotton belong to G. Barbadense, and bring 9d. to 18d. per lb. in the Liverpool market (staple 1 to 18 inch). The short-staple varieties, known as New Orleans, Mobile, Uplands, &c., sell.at from 4d. to 7d., extra qualities sometimes bringing 9d. to 10d. per lb. G. herbaceum is found in India, China, Africa, &c. The principal commercial varieties are those known as Surat, Madras, Bengal, &c. It is a small shrubby plant (2 to 4 feet high), bears a yellow flower, the seeds are covered with short grayish down, and the staple produced, though not long (to 1 inch), is very fine. Its price varies from 3d. to 54d. per lb. The cotton known as nankeen is thought to belong to this species. G. herbaceum can be profitably cultivated in colder countries than any other species of cotton-plant. The third species (G. peruvianum) is a native of South America, and the 'green seed' cotton of the United States appears to be a variety. The stem reaches 10 to 15 feet in height, the flowers are yellow, and the capsules contain eight or ten black seeds firmly attached together in a cone-like mass. The wool is long (1 to 1 inch) and strong-stapled, and in value stands next in order to Sea Island and Egyptian. Pernambuco, Maranham, Bahia, Maceio, and Peruvian are varieties which sell in Liverpool at from 51d. to 62d.; extra qualities of Peruvian bring 6d. to 8d., and Sea Island Peruvian is worth 9 d. to 12d. per lb. G. arboreum is found in India, China, &c., and, as its name imports, is a large tree-like plant. It bears a red flower, and produces a fine yellowish-white wool. Varieties of it have been long cultivated in the United States, and with the requisite soil and climate, are said to produce a wool somewhat resembling Sea Island.

The finer kinds of yarn are spun from Sea Island

of the kinds have the flowers larger in proportion, and the leaves divided into more numerous and much deeper and narrower lobes, but the general appearance of all is very similar.

Difference of opinion exists among botanists as to the number of distinct species, and there are very many varieties in cultivation, the number of which, through climatic influences and other causes, is continually increasing; but there are certain leading peculiarities on account of which some botanists and planters reduce all, at least of the cultivated kinds, to four primary speciesviz. (1) Gossypium Barbadense; (2) G. herbaceum or indicum; (3) G. peruvianum; and (4) G. arboreum. The produce of the first species is the most valuable. The beautiful long-stapled (1 to 2 inches) silky wool known as Sea Island' is a variety, and is grown exclusively upon the islands and a portion of the mainland of Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida; the saline ingredients of the soil and atmosphere being indispensable elements of the growth. The plant, 6 to 12 feet

fabricated our muslins, laces, &c. From Brazil and the better classes of short-stapled American come our cambrics, calicoes, shirtings, sheetings, &c., and from the inferior qualities of American and Surat are spun the coarse yarns required for fustians and other heavy fabrics. Yorkshire broadcloths are sometimes half cotton. From warps of cotton, and wefts of wool or worsted, are formed varieties of Orleans cloths, Coburgs, mousselines de laine, &c. There are also fabrics composed of silk and cotton, linen and cotton, alpaca and cotton, &c.

(2) Cultivation.-The plant is a very delicate organism, and requires a peculiar soil and climate for its due development. The method of cultivation is much the same in the various countries where the fibre is grown; but the most perfect system is that which obtains in the United States of America. Although the plant is not, strictly speaking, an annual, it is found more profitable to destroy the shrub, after the crop is gathered, and sow new seed every year. The preparation of the land takes place during the winter months. After the ground has been thoroughly ploughed, and as soon as all symptoms of frost have disappeared, the soil is laid

off into rows varying in width from 3 to 4 feet, according to the situation and quality of the soil. The seed is then sown along the centre of the beds in a straight furrow made with a small plough or opener; but in some plantations the seed is sown in holes from 12 to 18 inches apart. The sowing commences in March, and generally continues through April; but sometimes, owing to late spring frosts, the planting is prolonged to May. The young shoot appears above ground in about eight to ten days, and is then and subsequently weeded and thinned. Blooming takes place about the beginning of June-in early seasons, towards the latter end of May; the average date is about June 5. For ploughing, the planter requires just sufficient rain to give the soil a moist and spongy texture. During the early stages of its growth, the crop flourishes best with a warm steamy sort of weather, with an occasional shower until blooming; too much rain being productive of weeds and wood at the expense of wool, whilst a severe drought produces a stunted plant, forced into too early maturity, and resulting in a small and lightstapled crop. A great deal, however, depends upon the position of the plantation; lands situated in hilly or upland districts obviously requiring more moisture than those lying in the plains and riverbottoms. From the date of blooming to the close of the picking season, warm dry weather is essential. Picking generally commences in August, occasionally in July, and continues until the occurrence of frost-about the end of October or beginning of November-puts a stop to the further growth of the plant. Occasionally, in the absence of a killing frost, picking extends to December or January, and even into February, but the cotton is inferior in grade and quality. All the available hands of the plantation, young and old, are called into full employment during the harvest. The cotton is gathered into baskets or bags suspended from the shoulders of the pickers, and when the crop has been secured, it is spread out and dried, and then separated from the seeds.

The latter process was formerly performed by hand-a tedious operation, by which one hand could clean only a pound or so a day; but since the invention of the saw-gin by Eli Whitney in 1793, the process of cleaning has been both rapid and effectual. This machine is composed of a hopper, having one side formed of strong parallel wires placed so close together as to exclude the passage of the seeds from within. The wool is dragged through the apertures by means of circular saws attached to a large roller, and made to revolve between the wires, the seeds sinking to the bottom of the hopper. This process is adopted only in cleaning the short-stapled varieties of American cotton, the wool of which adheres so firmly to the seeds as to require a considerable amount of force to separate them. The Sea Island variety is cleaned by being passed through two small rollers which revolve in opposite directions, and easily throw off the hard smooth seeds. India, though the saw and other machine-gins have been introduced in some districts (notably the Macarthy-gin in Broach, and the saw-gin in Dharwar), the wool is mostly cleaned by means of the primitive roller. Prior to the American war the roller-gin was in exclusive use in Egypt and the Brazils, but the cotton famine led to the invention of the Macarthy-gin (which in principle is an improved roller-gin), and to its introduction into Egypt, and to the adoption of the saw-gin by the planters of Brazil; the effect in both cases being a considerable extension of the culture. The cotton cleaned by the roller-gin, being uninjured thereby in staple, realises the better price; but the deterioration caused by the saw-gin is compensated for by the

In

greatly increased quantity cleaned the latter turning out four or five times as much wool as the former in an equal space of time.

In India, throughout the greater portion of the Bombay Presidency, the North-west Provinces, the Central Provinces, and the Berars, sowing generally takes place between the middle of June and the middle of July, but in Dharwar and other southern districts of Bombay, and in the Madras Presidency, not until August or September-in some places later still. In the first-named districts picking commences in November, but in some portions not until January or February, and in Madras not until March or April. The extension of the railway system brings cotton which formerly went to other ports to Bombay (q.v.), and 80 per cent. of the total export from India is now from that port, while the bulk of the shipments takes place in the first six months of the year. In Egypt Sowing commences in March or April, and picking in October-continuing until January. The busiest export months are November to February. Brazil planting takes place as early as January or as late as May, according to district, and picking six months later. The chief shipping months are October to May.

In

(3) Production and Distribution.-The oldest cotton-producing country is India, in which empire the plant has been grown and manufactured from time immemorial. The first notice of it in connection with China dates no further back than the 11th century, but it is exceedingly probable that the plant was cultivated there long prior to that period, as cotton fabrics were known in China before the Christian era. Early mention is made of it in the annals of Egypt, and it is believed to have a high antiquity in all parts of Africa. It has for many centuries been produced in Asia Minor, in several of the Mediterranean islands, in Greece, and Southern Italy. In the western world, it was found by Columbus in the West Indies, and in Mexico and South America by his immediate successors, but was not so extensively cultivated as in the East; though during the past half-century the culture there has outstripped, both in quantity and quality, the produce of the Old World. Down to the commencement of the 19th century the cotton consumers of Europe were dependent upon the East and West Indies and the Levant for their raw material; but the inventive genius, superior farming, and greater energy of the planters of the southern states of America had, prior to the civil war, almost secured the monopoly of supplying the manufactures of Great Britain and the European continent with this valuable fibre. The following table gives at a glance the movements for a century back. The figures represent the annual imports into Great Britain from the chief sources of supply, in bales of the uniform weight of 400 lb. each, in quinquennial averages, except that the last column is based on the average imports for two years only: