CRACOW-CRAIG.

allusion to natural phenomena, accompanied with lieutenants, such as cutters, schooners, gun-boats, some slight pleasantry. &c. Also a term applied by seamen to any vessel whatever.

CRA'COW (Pol. Krakov), recently the capital of a small Polish republic, and more anciently the capital of the kingdom of Poland, is a city situated on the left bank of the Vistula, where it becomes a navigable river, in a beautiful plain surrounded by an amphitheatre of gentle hills. Lat. 50° 4' N., long. 19° 52′ E. Pop. in 1857, 41,086, of whom 13,000 were Jews. It contains 46 churches, 15 monasteries, 10 nunneries, and 7 Jewish synagogues. The ancient city of C. is a labyrinth of narrow, dark, and deserted streets, but contains many fine specimens of Gothic architecture in its churches and other edifices; and some handsome buildings are also to be seen in the more modern suburbs. The old walls have been converted into a promenade. In the midst of the houses rises the castle, a huge building of an imposing appearance. The cathedral contains the tombs of many of the Polish kings, and of some of the greatest men of the Polish nation. The university was founded in 1364, by Casimir the Great, whose design was carried into effect by Jagello and Hedwig in 1401. It was long the centre of light for Poland, but decayed under the influences of the Jesuits, till it ceased to exist. It was reorganised and reopened in 1817, and underwent important changes in 1833. possesses a museum of natural history, a botanic garden, a library of more than 30,000 volumes, and many MSS. of great value in connection with Polish history. C. suffered terribly from a fire in 1850. Its manufactures are trifling, and its trade, at one time very extensive, is now very limited, and in the hands of the Jews, but is said to be reviving. C. is connected by railway with Vienna, Berlin, and Warsaw. Three miles west of the city is a vast tumulus to the memory of Kosciusko. It is composed of earth taken from all the patriotic battle-fields of Poland.

It

CRAG, a local term given specially to those masses of shelly sand which have been used from very ancient times in agriculture to fertilise soils Geologists have deficient in calcareous matter. used it to characterise several groups of strata. See CORALLINE CRAG, MAMMALIFEROUS CRAG, NORWICH CRAG, and RED CRAG.

CRAIG AND TAIL, a term used to designate a peculiar hill conformation, in which a bold and precipitous front exists on one aspect of a hill, while the opposite is formed of a sloping declivity. Those who first observed this form of the surface, believed it was the effect of currents of water moving in the direction indicated by the C. and T.; but latterly there have been speculations calling in the aid of ice, though not excluding the presence of water also. Fine examples of this structure occur in and around Edinburgh, where the western current has left the bold Craig' facing the west and the Tail' sloping towards the east; as, for example, the Castle rock, precipitous and unapproachable on every side except to the east, where it has protected the shale and sandstone beds from erosion.

Castle Rock, Edinburgh.

The direction and progress of the current can easily be traced; rushing against the hard basalt of the Castle rock, it was turned aside, and continued its course eastward, hollowing out the Nor' Loch on until the influence of the rock being lost, and aided the one side and the Cowgate valley on the other, by the resistance of the Calton Hill and Salisbury Craigs, the currents again met in the valley at Holyrood, when the 'tail' entirely disappears.

C. was founded by Krak, Prince of Poland, from whom it derives its name, about the year 700, became the capital of Poland in 1320, and continued to be so till 1609, when that honour was transferred to Warsaw by Sigismund III. It was taken by the Bohemians in 1039, by the Mongols in 1241, by CRAIG, JOHN, an eminent preacher of the the Swedes in 1655 and 1702, and by the Russians Reformation, was born in Scotland about 1512. in 1768. On the third partition of Poland, in 1795, Having spent some time as a tutor in England, it was assigned to Austria. From 1809 to 1815 it he returned to Scotland and entered the Dominican formed part of the Duchy of Warsaw. The congress order, of which he had not long been a member of Vienna established it as a republic, with a small when he fell under the suspicion of heresy, and territory containing about 140,000 inhabitants, under was cast into prison. On his release, he travelled the protectorate of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. on the continent; and after some time was, through The territory bordered with that of each of these Cardinal Pole's influence, intrusted with the edugreat powers. Internal dissensions between the cation of the novices in connection with the Dominobles and the common people afforded a pretence nican order at Bologna. While here, Calvin's for interference, and the sympathy shewn by the Institutes fell in his way, and converted him to inhabitants of C. for the cause of Polish independ-Protestant doctrines. Having openly avowed the ence in 1830 and following years was made the change in his opinions, he was brought before the ground of proceedings, which terminated in 1846 Inquisition, and sentenced to be burnt-a fate in the annexation of C. to the Austrian dominions, a measure alleged to be necessary for the security of the neighbouring states, but against which Britain and France protested. C. now forms part of the Austrian crown-land of Galicia. An extensive line of fortifications is being constructed around it by the Austrians, with numerous detached forts, and one immense fortress on a height commanding the city, whose outworks will extend over a space of about five miles. These works are intended as a barrier against the advance of Russia.

C.

from which he was saved by the mob, on the death of Pope Paul IV., breaking open the prisons n Rome, and setting the prisoners at liberty. escaped to Vienna, and obtained some favour at the court of Maximilian II.; but the news of his being there reached Rome, and the Pope demanded his surrender as one condemned for heresy. The emperor, however, instead of complying with the request of his holiness, gave C. a safe-conduct out of Germany. He now returned to Scotland, and was appointed the colleague of John Knox in the parish church of Edinburgh. Thinking CRAFT is a general designation for lighters, the marriage of Queen Mary and Bothwell conhoys, barges, &c., employed in loading or unloading trary to the word of God, he, while holding this large ships. In the royal navy, the name small position, boldly refused to proclaim the banns. In C. is sometimes given to vessels commanded by│1572, C. was sent to illuminate the dark places' in

CRAIG CRAIL.

Forfarshire and Aberdeenshire, and remained in the north until 1579, when he was appointed minister to King James VI. in Edinburgh. He now took a leading part in the affairs of the church, was the compiler of part of the Second Book of Discipline, and the writer of the National Covenant, signed in 1580 by the king and his household. He was a man of great conscientiousness, and was not slow to oppose the proceedings of the court when he deemed them opposed to Scripture, and to speak wholesome but unpleasant truths to his majesty himself. He died December, 1600.

appropriated by, or ascribed to, others. In the first class we may mention the idea of mutual citizenship; and in the second, that of the representation of minorities, which unquestionably originated with him. Between 1849-1852 appeared his Romance of the Peerage; in 1855, his Outlines of the History of the English Language, which has passed through three editions; and in 1857, his essays on The English of Shakspeare, editions of which were issued in 1859, 1866, and 1867. He died in 1866.

CRAIL, a royal and parliamentary burgh and seaport in the 'East Neuk' of Fifeshire, two miles CRAIG, THOMAS, author of the well-known south-west of Fifeness, and ten miles south-east Treatise on the Feudal Law, was born probably of St. Andrews. Population, 965. Along with St. about 1538. What part of Scotland he was born Andrews, East and West Anstruther, Cupar, in is not known. Educated first at St Andrews, Kilrenny, and Pittenweem, it returns one member he afterwards prosecuted his studies at Paris, and to parliament. C. was a town of some note in the passed as an advocate at the Scottish bar in middle ages, being then called Caryll. In 847 there February 1563, and in that or the following year was a skirmish with the Danes here, and at Fifewas appointed justice-depute to Archibald Earl ness there are still the traces of what is believed of Argyle, hereditary justice-general of Scotland. to have been a Danish encampment. There are In literary pursuits, C. had distinguished himself traces of an old castle, in which David I. occaabove all his contemporaries, and while at the sionally resided; of a priory college, and other head of the criminal judicature of Scotland he adjuncts of an ecclesiastical establishment. The did not neglect the belles-lettres, as was evidenced Established Church, though it has undergone many by an epithalamium on the queen's marriage with Darnley, and by a poem on the birth of James I. Besides his work on Feudal Law, C. wrote on the Succession to the Throne of England, in which he took a warm interest; a treatise on the union of Scotland and England, and one on Homage, vindicating Scotland from the charge of feudal dependence on England, which had been asserted by Hollinshed in his Chronicles, together with many poetical pieces. In the latter part of his life, C. acted as advocate for the Church of Scotland. He seems to have been high in favour with James VI., who wished to confer the honour of knighthood upon him; and when C. steadily refused, ordered that all persons should address him as if he really had accepted the honour. He died February 1608.

CRAIGLEITH STONE, a siliceous sandstone belonging to the carboniferous series, quarried at Craigleith, near Edinburgh, and largely used for building in that city, for which it is admirably adapted by its purity, durability, and the ease with which it can be wrought.

CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE, is by birth a Scotchman. Born in Fifeshire in 1799, he was educated alterations, is still substantially the ancient struc for the church at St Andrews University, but, ture, and the square tower, with the broach (q. v.) preferring a literary career, he went to London which springs from it, are in their original conin 1824. His first work of importance was the dition, and very perfect in form. It was after a Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties (1831), sermon preached in this church by Knox in 1559, forming part of the series of publications issued that his hearers rushed in an infuriated mob to by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know- St Andrews, and burnt the magnificent cathedral ledge. He also contributed largely to the Penny of the Episcopal metropolis. Archbishop Sharp Cyclopædia. In 1839, C. became editor of the was for some time minister of Crail. The harbour Pictorial History of England, some of the most of C., though small, is safe; but there is a much valuable chapters of which were written by himself, more commodious site for a harbour in what and have since been enlarged and republished is called Roome Bay, in the immediate neighseparately as independent works. Such are his bourhood, the desirableness of converting which Sketches of the History of Literature and Learning into a harbour of refuge has often been urged on in England from the Norman Conquest to the g rnment. Could this improvement be effected, Present Time (6 vols., 1844), and his History of it is believed that C. would again become, as it British Commerce from the Earliest Times (3 vols., was formerly, the great rendezvous for the herring1844). In 1849, C. was appointed to the chair of History and English Literature in Queen's College, Belfast, a situation which he still occupies. C. possesses an energetic and fruitful mind, his thinking is clear, his style accurate and pointed, and he is conscientious and careful in his statement of facts in no ordinary degree. Many of his slighter and more ephemeral works have contained suggestions in politics and social science which were both valuable and original, some of which were afterwards

fishery. Even without this advantage, there has been a great revival in this branch of trade of late years, and fish is now cured to the value of £50,000 to £100,000 annually in the little fishing towns in this neighbourhood. Being a retired spot, with many traces of the well-being and good taste of earlier times still clinging to it, C. is eminently suited for a summer residence for seabathing purposes. Its bold coast offers pleasant rambles, and interesting excursions to the geologist

and botanist.

CRAKE-CRANACH.

The town is lighted with gas, possesses good shops and markets, a reading-room, lecture institute, &c.

CRAKE (Crex), a genus of birds of the rail family (Rallidae), differing from the true rails in having the bill shorter than the head and comparatively thick. The wings are also armed with a small concealed spine. The name is derived from the harsh call-note of the male. The best known species is the common CORN-CRAKE or LAND-RAIL (C. pratensis), the frequent call-note of which is heard from every field of corn or rye-grass in valleys and low grounds in the early part of summer, and is associated by almost every inhabitant of Britain with all that is pleasant in that pleasant season. The corn-crake is a very pretty bird, of a reddishbrown colour, marked with dark-brown in streaks along the middle of the feathers, lighter below; it has rather long legs and long toes; the tail is very short and pointed. It runs very swiftly, so as to be able sometimes to escape from a dog; but flies rather heavily, although it is a bird of passage, and is seen in Britain only in summer. It visits, in like manner, all the northern parts of Europe, and extends its migrations even to Iceland, spending the winter on the shores of the Mediterranean and in Africa.

Corn-Crake (Crex pratensis).

divided leaves and a great fleshy root, a native of Hungary and other central parts of Europe and of Asia, is sometimes called Tartar Bread; and its root is eaten in the countries of which it is a native, either boiled, or more generally peeled and sliced with oil, vinegar, and salt.

CRAMP, an irregular, involuntary, and painful contraction of a voluntary muscle, without insensibility or other disturbance of the general system. C. is often the effect of cold, and has proved fatal to swimmers by attacking them suddenly when in the water. Otherwise it is a disease of little importance, and readily removed by warmth and friction, with regulated movement of the muscles affected. Cramps are a distressing symptom in cholera (q. v.), in which disease it has been proposed to treat them by applying a tight bandage or tourniquet (q. v.) to the affected limbs. See SPASM.

CRAMP RINGS, were rings which were supposed to cure cramp and the falling-sickness.' They are said to have originated as far back as the middle of the 11th c., in a ring presented by a pilgrim to Edward the Confessor, which, after that ruler's death, was preserved as a relic in Westminster Abbey, and was applied for the cure of epilepsy and cramp. Hence appears to have arisen the belief that rings blessed by English sovereigns were efficacious in such cases; and the custom of blessing for distribution large numbers of C. R. on Good Friday continued to exist down to the time of Queen Mary. The accomplished Lord Berners, ambassador to Spain in Henry VIII.'s time, writes from Saragossa to Cardinal Wolsey: If your grace remember me with some crampe ryngs ye shall doo a thing muche looked for; and I trust to bestow thaym well with Goddes grace.' The metal the rings were composed of was what formed the king's offering to the cross on Good Friday, usually either gold or silver. The superstitious belief in the curative property of C. R. made out of certain pieces of silver obtained in particular ways, still lingers in some of the less enlightened English counties.

In

CRANACH, LUCAS, a celebrated German painter, was born in the bishopric of Bamberg in the year 1472. Little is known of his early life, except that he was instructed in art by his father-that he visited Palestine in 1493 with the Elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony, who made him his court painter in 1504, at which period we find him in high reputation, especially noted for his facility. 1508, the elector made him a grant of armorial bearings, having for crest a winged serpent. He made a journey into the Netherlands in 1509, and there drew a picture of Charles V.-the future emperor-then nine years old. C. seems to have acted as factotum at the court of the elector and his two successors, preparing for and directing the ceremonies and festivities, and knew besides how to follow other lucrative trades. In 1520 he bought an apothecary's business at Wittenberg, where he was also a bookseller and paper-maker, became councillor and chamberlain, and was twice chosen

Its call-note may be so exactly imitated by passing the edge of the thumb-nail briskly along the points of the teeth of a small comb, that it can thus be decoyed within a short distance, although it is a very shy bird, and multitudes are familiar with its cry who never saw it in their lives. Its weight is ordinarily about six ounces. It is very highly esteemed for the table; and, according to Drayton, seldom comes but upon rich men's spits.' Two or three other species, very rare in Britain, but more common in the southern parts of Europe, are chiefly found in marshy grounds, and sometimes receive the name SORA (Zapornia). With them is ranked the CAROLINA RAIL OF SORA RAIL (C. Carolinus) of North America, which spends its winters in the States near the Gulf of Mexico, but migrates northwards in summer, and is sometimes seen in vast numbers about marshes and the reedy margins of lakes and rivers, particularly in its migration southward in autumn. Its size is about equal to that of the corn-burgomaster of the town. crake; and its colour is very similar, but with C. was closely bound up with the early reformers. mingled short streaks of white. It is much esteemed He was the intimate friend of Luther, whose picture for the table. he several times painted. In 1550 he went to

CRA'MBE, a genus of plants of the natural order Augsburg to share the imprisonment of the elector, Cruciferæ, having a pouch (silicle) of two unequal and returned with him to Saxony in 1552. C. died at joints, of which the upper is globose and one-sceded, Weimar, on the 16th October 1553, in the 81st year the lower abortive. The cotyledons (q. v.) are of his age, and was buried in the court church there. conduplicate. The species, which are not very He had two sons, one of whom, Lucas, was known numerous, are scattered over the world. One is a by the name of the younger Cranach,' an excellent native of Britain, C. maritima, the well-known SEA- colourist and portrait-painter. KALE (q. v.). Another, C. Tartarica, with much C. has left behind him an unusually large number

CRANBERRY-CRANE.