Chantilly, a town in the French department of Oise, 26 miles NNE. of Paris. One of the most beautiful places in the vicinity of the capital, and the headquarters of French horse-racing, it attracts immense numbers of visitors. Apart from its natural beauty, it is interesting as the place where the Great Condé spent the last twenty years of his life in the society of Molière, Boileau, Racine, La Fontaine, and Bossuet, and where his cook killed himself, on the occasion of a royal visit, because the fish failed to arrive. His magnificent chateau was pulled down at the Revolution of 1793, but was rebuilt by the Duc d'Aumale, who bought back the estate in 1872, and who in 1886 presented it to the French Institute, with its priceless art collections, its celebrated stables for 250 horses, and its 16th-century Petit Château,' one of the finest specimens of Renaissance architecture in France. The grounds, park, and forest, 6050 acres in area, are of great beauty-truly a princely gift, its value nearly £2,000,000. The manufacture of silk pillow-lace, or blonde, so famous in the 18th century, is all but extinct. Pop. (1886) 4139.

over.

Chantrey, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT, an eminent English sculptor, was born at Jordanthorpe, in Derbyshire, on 7th April 1781 (not 1782, as has been generally said). His father, who was a carpenter, and rented a small farm, died when Chantrey was only twelve years of age, leaving the mother in narrow circumstances. The boy was in 1797 apprenticed for seven years to a carver and gilder in Sheffield called Ramsay. It was in these humble circumstances that Chantrey acquired the rudiments of art. He began to model in clay and to draw portraits and landscapes in pencil. His efforts were encouraged by J. R. Smith, the mezzotint engraver: he acquired some local celebrity as a portrait painter, and in 1802 was enabled to cancel his indentures with Ramsay. Soon afterwards he came to London, and studied for a short time in the schools of the Royal Academy, employing himself also in woodcarving. In 1805 he received his first commission for a marble bust, that of the Rev. J. Wilkinson, for the parish church, Sheffield. This was followed by commissions for colossal busts of admirals for Greenwich Hospital; and having in 1807 married a cousin with some property, his early struggles were In 1808 he was successful in the competition for the statue of George III. for Guildhall, and during the rest of his life he was largely employed on works of portraiture. The features of the most celebrated men of his time were transcribed by his chisel, and it was in this class of severely realistic work that he most uniformly excelled; though probably his most widely known statue-group is that of the Sleeping Children' in Lichfield Cathedral, a subject-its design has been attributed, in error, to Flaxman-in which the real and the ideal seem to meet and blend. His busts include those of James Watt, Wordsworth, and the two very celebrated heads of Sir W. Scott, which he executed in 1820 and 1828. Among his statues are Sir Joseph Banks (1827), Sir John Malcolm (1837), Francis Horner, William Pitt, George IV., and the Duke of Wellington; while his head of Satan and his Plenty designs for Sheaf House, Sheffield, and his 'Penelope' at Woburn, are examples of his rare treatment of ideal and imaginative subjects. In 1816 Chantrey was elected an Associate, in 1818 a Member of the Royal Academy; and in 1835 he was knighted by William IV. Allan Cunningham, the poet, was his secretary and superintendent of works from 1814 till the date of Chantrey's death, 25th November 1841. The sculptor acquired by the practice of his art a fortune of about £150,000; and bequeathed to the Royal Academy, with liferent to his widow, who died in 1875, a sum yielding about £3000

CHAPALA

annually, of which the president was to receive £300 and the secretary £50, and the rest was to be devoted to the purchase of works of art executed in Great Britain. Many national acquisitions have already been made by means of this Chantrey Fund. See John Holland's Memorials of Chantrey (1851).

more

Chantry (Fr. chanterie, from chanter, 'to sing'), a term applied alike to endowments or benefices to provide for the chanting of masses, and to the chapels in which such masses are celebrated. These endowments were commonly made in the form of testamentary bequests, the object being to insure the erection of a chapel near or over the spot where the testator was buried, and to remunerate the priests for saying masses in it for the repose of his soul, or of the souls of others named in his will. Many such chantry chapels are still to be seen in English parish churches; but they were which it was deemed a privilege to be buried, and common in abbeys and monastic establishments, in where some such offering to the brotherhood was in a measure the price of sepulture. These chapels, which have generally the tomb of the founder in the middle of them, are separated from the aisles or nave of the church by open screen-work. Sometimes, again, they are separate erections, projecting from the church externally; but in cathedrals and the larger churches they are generally constructed within the church, often between the piers. Many chantries are lavishly enriched with sculpture and tracery of all descriptions, and some of them are adorned with gilding and painting.

Chanzy, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED, French general, born at Nouart (Ardennes), 18th March 1823, entered the artillery as a private, received a commission in the Zouaves in 1841, and served the revolution of the 4th September the Governalmost uninterruptedly in Africa till 1870. After ment of National Defence appointed him a general of division; in December he was placed at the head invaders inch by inch with a stubborn valour that of the second Army of the Loire, and resisted the won the respect of the Germans and the confidence of his countrymen, and which found a fitting close in the great six days' conflict about Le Mans. He was elected to the National Assembly, and narrowly escaped being shot by the Communists Algeria. Chosen a life senator in 1875, he was in 1871. In 1873-79 he was governor-general of put forward for the presidency in 1879. He was ambassador at St Petersburg in 1879-81, and afterwhere he died suddenly, 4th January 1883. wards commanded the 6th army corps at Châlons, Chuquet, Le Général Chanzy (1884).

See

Chaos signified, in the ancient cosmogonies, that vacant infinite space out of which sprang all things that exist. Some poets make it the single original source of all; others mention along with it Gaa, Tartaros, and Eros. By some also only the rough outlines of heaven and earth were supposed to have proceeded from Chaos, while the organisation and perfecting of all things was the work of Eros. Still later cosmogonists, such as Ovid, represent it as that confused, shapeless mass out of which the universe was formed into a kosmos, or harmonious order. Hesiod makes Chaos the mother of Erebus and Nox. In Gen. i. 1-2, after God created heaven and earth, the earth was yet waste and void (tõhū va-bōhu), and darkness was upon the face of the deep' (tehom, the Chaldee tiamat). See ADAM AND EVE.

6

Chapala, a lake of Mexico, on the high plateau of Jalisco, surrounded by steep, bare mountains. It has an estimated area of 1300 sq. m., contains many islands, and is traversed by the Rio Grande de Santiago.

CHAP-BOOKS

Chap-books are little stitched tracts written for the people, and sold by chapmen, or travelling pilars, whose representative Autolycus is SO vividly brought before our eyes by Shakespeare in Winter's Tale. The literary wares of the chapman were mostly ballads or other broadsides, but he also deait in these stitched booklets. Popular literature has naturally become scarce on account of the vicissitudes to which it is subject, and few of the ier chap books exist at the present day. Samuel Pepys collected some of considerable interest which be bound in small quarto volumes and lettered Vulgaria. Besides these he left four volumes of chap books of a smaller size which he lettered Ponny Merriments, Penny Witticisms, Penny Complements and Penny Godlinesses. The small quarto chap books are the descendants of the black-letter tracts of Wynkyn de Worde, Copland, and other famous printers, and were probably bought from booksellers as well as from chapmen. With the 18th century came in a much inferior class of terature, which was printed in a smaller size, and forms the bulk of what is known to us now in euections of chap-books. These tracts were printed largely in Aldermary Churchyard, and afterwords in Bow Churchyard, as well as at Northamp-| ton, York, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Stokesley, Warring. ton, Liverpool, Banbury, Aylesbury, Durham, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Coventry, Whitehaven, Carlisle, Worcester, Penrith, Cirencester, &c., in England; at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Falkirk, Paisley, Dumfries, Kilmarnock, Stirling, &c., in Scotland; and at Dublin. As ballads are frequently reduced versions of romances, so chap-books usually entain vulgarised versions of popular stories. The subjects of the chap-books are very various; first and foremost are the popular tales, such as Valentine and Orson, Fortunatus, Reynard the For, Jack and the Giants, Patient Grissel, Tom Thumb, and Tom Hickathrift; then come the lives of beroes, historical abridgments, travels, religious treatises, and abstracts of popular books like É tanson Crusoe and Don Quixote. Besides these

2 in 1883.

there are the more modern inventions of hack writers. Dongal Graham (1724–1779), bellman to the city of Glasgow, was a popular writer who is supposed to have done much to give a special caracter to Scottish chap-book literature. Motherwell has styled him the vulgar Juvenal of his His works were reprinted at Glasgow in The chap books of the 17th century are valuable as mustrations of manners; but little is to be learned from those of the 18th century, which are of this may be taken from the story of Dick Wittington. The earliest version of this tale wha has come down to us is a small quarto tract ettled The Famous and Remarkable History of S Kichard Whittington, three times Lord Mayor et London, who lived in the time of King Henry the Fifth in the year 1419, with all the remarkable nas, and things of note, which happened in his time with his Life and Death.' It is without a wate but was probably published about 1670. In is the historical character of the subject is fairly At up although the dates are somewhat mixed, and to this the widespread folk tale of the cat is In the later chap-book versions the histori*2. Puudents are ruthlessly cut down, and the fictile as oraes amplified. The three chief points of the * are the poor parentage of the hero, (2) his ange of mind at Highgate Hill by reason of hear ng Bow Bells, and (3) his good fortune arising † the sale of his cat. Now these are all equally true as referring to the historical Whittington, 4: the second is apparently an invention of the ith century. In the 17th-century story we learn

Together of an inferior character. An instance

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that Whittington set out before daybreak on AllHallows' Day, and before he got as far as Bunhill he heard Bow Bells ring out. Holloway replaced Bunhill in the later versions, and hence arose the myth connected with Whittington Stone on Highgate Hill.

Hannah More's Repository Tracts, and afterwards the publications of the Useful Knowledge Society, Chambers's Miscellany of Tracts, and the growth of cheap magazines, greatly reduced the popularity of chap-books; but Catnach, a London printer, kept up the supply in the early portion of the 19th century, and even now chap-books are still produced in England and elsewhere.

The influence of chap-books can never have been very great in Britain from the inferiority of their literary character. This has not been the case in other countries, and Mr Wentworth Webster has discovered the curious fact that the Pastorales or Basque dramas owe their origin to the chap-books hawked about the country (see article BASQUES). A valuable and standard work on the chap-books of France was published in 1854, entitled Histoire des Livres Populaires, ou de la Littérature du Colportage, by M. Ch. Nisard; but little has been done in England for this class of literature. Mr J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps printed in 1849 Notices of Fugitive Tracts and Chap Books and Descriptive Notices of Popular English Histories; Mr John Ashton published in 1882 a useful work on Chapbooks of the Eighteenth Century; and five of the most interesting of the old chap-books have been reprinted (1885) by the Villon Society, with introductions by Mr Gomme and Mr H. B. Wheatley. For German chap-books, the reader should consult Karl Simrock, Die deutschen Volksbücher (55 parts, Berlin and Frankfort, 1839-67), and Gotthard Oswald Marbach, Altdeutsche Volksbucher (44 vols. Leip. 1838-47).

which, according to Brachet, already in the 7th Chapel (through Fr. from a late Latin capella, century had the sense of a chapel, but earlier meant the sanctuary in which was preserved the cappa or cope of St Martin, and was next expanded to mean any sanctuary containing relics). The term now signifies a building erected for the purposes of

public worship, but not possessing the full privileges and characteristics of a church. In this sense all places of worship erected by dissenters are now called chapels in England, and the term is also applied to supplementary places of worship, even such as parochial chapels, chapels of ease, free though in connection with the established church— chapels, and the like. In former times it was applied either to a domestic oratory, or to a place body corporate. In the latter sense we speak of of worship erected by a private individual or a chapels in colleges. tion was that of a separate erection, either within But its earliest significaor attached to a large church or cathedral, separately dedicated, and devoted to special services attached to them, and the sacrament of baptism (see CHANTRY). Chapels had no burying ground was not usually administered in them.-The name is also given to a printer's workshop, hence to a union of the workmen in a printing-office-said to be so applied because Caxton set up his press in a chapel at Westminster.

Chapelain, JEAN, a somewhat curious figure in the gallery of French authors, was born in 1595, and died in 1674. He was a learned, industrious writer, who passed for a time as a poet, and was accepted as the dominant authority in the world of French letters between the literary dictatorships of Malherbe and of Boileau. He produced one of the abortive epics which it was the fashion to write during the regency of Mazarin. This work, the

CHAPONE

written in rhymed verses of fourteen syllables. The dedicatory epistle to the Earl of Essex admirably Llustrates the writer's dignified temper. Later in 15 he published Achilles' Shield, translated from the eighteenth book of the Iliad. In this translation he used rhymed verses of ten syllables, the metre that he afterwards employed in his render. ing of the Odyssey. It was not until 1610 or thereabouts that he published Homer, Prince of Poets: translated according to the Greeke in twelve Bookes of his Huds, with a fine dedicatory epistle in verse to Prince Henry. The complete translation of The Hads of Homer, Prince of Poets, in rhymed verses of fourteen syllables, appeared in 1611. In the Preface to the Reader he states that the last twelve

books had been translated in less than fifteen weeks. Having finished the Iliad, he set to work on the Odyssey, and in 1616 appeared The Whole Works of Homer, Prince of Poets, in his Iliads and Odysseys, which was followed (about 1624) by The Cronene of all Homer's Workes, Batrachomyomachia, or the Battaile of Frogs and Mice: His Hymns and Epigrams. In spite of all harshnesses, obscurities, and conceits, Chapman's translation of Homer is a noble achievement. He was not a profound scholar, and has often missed the sense where a schoolboy could set him right. But the work is instinct with hfe, full of heat and energy. By his contemporaries -Jonson, Drayton, Daniel, and the rest-it was applauded, and in later days it has never lacked Mimirers, Pope acknowledged its merits; Coleridge declared that it was such a poem as Homer might have written if he had lived in England in the time of Elizabeth; Lamb admired it enthusiastically; and Keats wrote a famous sonnet in its pruse While he was busy with his Homeric Labours, Chapman was also writing for the stage. He joined Jonson and Marston in the composition of Eastward Ho (1605), and in 1606 published a graceful comedy, The Gentleman Usher. In 1607 appeared Bussy d'Ambois: a Tragedie; and The Revenge of Bussy d'Ambois followed in 1613. These tragedies contain much inarticulate bombast intermingled with exalted poetry. Heavy and undramatic though they were, they held the stage for many years by reason of their impassioned earnestDes Two other tragedies, The Conspiracie and Tragedie of Charles, Duke of Byron (1608), are also undramatic, but abound in fine poetry. Lamb was of opinion that of all the Elizabethan dramatists Chapman came nearest to Shakespeare in the descriptive and didactic, in passages which are less purely dramatic. Chapman's other plays are The May Day (1611), The Widow's Tears (1612), and Car and Pompey (1631). Two posthumous tragedies, published in 1654, Alphonsus and Revenge for Honour, bear his name, but their authorship is uncertain. The Ball, a comedy, and The Tragedie of Chabot were published in 1639 as The joint work of Chapman and Shirley. Among (apman's non-dramatic works are Enthymia Eus (1609), Petrarch's Seren Penitentiall Fimea (1612), The Divine Poem of Museus 16.6), and The Georgicks of Hesiod (1618). anman died in the parish of St Giles's in the Fets, 12th May 1634. Wood describes him as a

on of reverend aspect, religious and temperate, ities rarely meeting in a poet.' A complete edition of Chapman's works in 3 vols., with an essay by A. C. Swinburne, appeared in 1873-75.

Chapone, HESTER, authoress, daughter of Thomas Mulso, was born at Twywell, Northamp tos-hire. 27th October 1727. She wrote a short romance in her tenth year, and after her mother's death her attention was divided between house

1 duties and the study of French, Italian, Latin, music, and drawing. She wrote for the Lumbier (No. 10), Adventurer, and Gentleman's

Magazine, and soon became known to a literary circle, including Richardson; but she is now chiefly remembered by her Letters on the Improvement of the Mind (1772), which went through many editions. She married an attorney in 1760, but next year was left a widow; she herself died at Hadley, 25th December 1801. See her Works with Life (4 vols. 1807).

Chapped Hands, a form of inflammation of the skin of the back of the hands characterised by abnormal dryness and roughness, with the forma tion of cracks or fissures. It is caused by exposure to cold, and can generally be prevented or cured by carefully drying the hands after they are washed, and applying glycerine, vaseline, or other simple ointment. The hands should also be protected in cold weather by warm gloves.

the most learned work on ancient English music, Chappell, WILLIAM, F.S.A., the author of was born November 20, 1809. Most of his life he lived in London, where he was for some years a member of a great music publishing house. His first work of importance was 4 Collection of National English_Airs,consisting of Ancient Song, Ballad, and Dance Tunes (2 vols. [1838-40]). This work, which contained 245 airs, ultimately grew into the greater and entirely rewritten work, containing over 400 airs, re-harmonised on a consistent plan by Macfarren, Popular Music of the Olden Time; a Collection of Ancient Songs, National Music of England (2 vols. [1855-59]). Ballads, and Dance Tunes, illustrative of the The first volume, itself containing 200 airs, forms a complete collection of English airs, so far as known, down to the reign of Charles I.; the second is rather a selection, containing, however, all the more interesting or important airs of later date. Mr Chappell took a principal part in the foundation in 1840 of the Musical Antiquarian Society and the Percy Society, and edited some of Dowland's songs for the former and several rare collections for the latter. He published a few papers in the Archæologia, contributed invaluable notes to Hales and Furnivall's reprint of the Percy Folio MS. (1867-68), and annotated the first three volumes (1869-79) of the Ballad Society edition of The Roxburghe Ballads (continued by his friend Mr Ebsworth). Mr Chappell published in 1874 the first volume of a History of Music. He died in London, 20th August 1888.

It is

Chapra, a town in Bengal, on the Gogra, 1 mile above its confluence with the Ganges. capital of the district of Saran. Pop. (1881) 51,670.

Chaptal, JEAN ANTOINE, COMTE DE CHANTELOUP, French statesman and chemist, was born at Nogaret, Lozère, 4th June 1756, and studied at Montpellier, where in 1781 the states of Languedoc founded for him a chair of Chemistry. A considerable fortune left him by his uncle he devoted to the establishment of works for the manufacture of mineral acids, alum, soda, &c. He was made a member of the Institute in 1798, and in 1800 Minister of the Interior. He resigned in 1804, but in 1811 was made a count by the emperor. During the Hundred Days he was a minister of state and director of commerce and manufactures; after the Restoration he withdrew into private life, but was admitted to the chamber of peers by Louis XVIIL in 1819. He died in Paris, 30th July 1832.

Chapter. See BIBLE, Vol. II. p. 126. Chapter-house (Fr. salle capitulaire), the building in which the monks and canons of monastic establishments, and the dean and prebendaries of cathedral and collegiate churches, meet for the management of the affairs of their order or society (see ĈATHEDRAL). Chapter-houses frequently exhibit the most elaborate architectural adornment,

Gloucester, &c. are parallelograms; Lichfield is an oblong octagon; Lincoln, a decagon; and Worcester a circle. In France the chapter-house is generally square. They are always contiguous to the church, and are not generally placed to the west of the transepts. They sometimes open into the church, or are entered by a passage, but are more frequently in connection with the cloisters. In some instances there are arches or windows between the chapter-house and the cloisters to enable those standing in the latter to hear what goes on in the chapter-house. A stone seat on a raised step generally runs round the apartment. Chapter-houses were often used as places of sepulture, and have sometimes crypts under them, as at Wells and Westminster.

Chapultepec, a rock 2 miles SW. of the city of Mexico, rising to a height of 150 feet, and crowned by a castle, which was erected by the Spanish viceroy in 1785 on the site of the palace of Montezuma.

Char, a fish. See CHARR.

Chara. The Characea or Stoneworts are a small group of common aquatic plants found grow. ing in large tufts, or even covering large expanses on the bottoms of fresh-water ponds and shallow lakes, brackish or even salt-water lagoons, &c., and of which the systematic position has undergone the most extraordinary and instructive vicissitudes. The early botanists, with K. Bauhin, had no hesitation in describing them as horsetails (Equisetum). In 1719 Vaillant proposed for them a separate genus (Chara), while Linnæus, although at first disposed to regard them as Algae, as their habitat suggests, decided that the small red male reproductive body must be a stamen, and the larger green female one a pistil, and accordingly placed them as flowering plants among the Monacia Monandria. His pupils

CHARA

at most ventured to remove these to the Monandria Monogynia, while De Jussieu regarded them as a genus of Naiadaceae (q.v.), an order of monocoty. ledonous aquatics with much reduced flowers. In similar opinions he was followed by De Candolle and other eminent systematists: and it was not until 1851 that a careful re-examination of their structure and mode of reproduction by Thuret finally disproved the phanerogamous view, and established their cryptogamic nature. Since that time the group has attracted great attention, and is now on grounds of peculiar instructiveness, both morphological and physiological, one of the classical forms usually presented to the beginner, not only in cryptogamic botany, but general biology.

Commencing with the vegetative system, we find this apparently consisting of a stem with regular whorls of leaves arising at definite points (nodes) of the stem. The internodes, or distances between these, are at first considerable; but as we approach the apex these are shorter and shorter, and at length we lose sight of them in the crowded terminal bud. The resemblance to a young shoot of Equisetum is so far satisfactory, and the mineral incrustation (in some species so abundant as to lead to the substitution of the plant for scouring metal) appears to confirm this. The incrustation, Fig. 1. however, is calcareous, not silice- Shoot of Chara. Even under microscopic ex

ous.

amination we may at first sympathise with the old observers, and seem to see in the stem a multicellular structure, even a cortex; nay, to see under our very eyes the actual circulation of the sap. More careful scrutiny, however, enables us to repeat the work of later and more accurate observers.

We see that this movement is not the

circulation of the sap in a stem, but a streaming of the protoplasm within what is simply a single enormous cell stretching from one node to the next (see CELL). The apparent cortex is a single layer of cells covering this internodal cell; and the whole vegetative structure is unravelled when we roughly dissect out the terminal bud,

and imbed this harden, stain in paraffin, and

thus cut a fine longitudinal section (fig. 2). An apical cell is seen which continually segments off a lower one; this divides (still transversely to the axis) into two new ones; and the lower of these henceforth steadily lengthens as the internodal cell, while the upper undergoes repeated division, until a plate of nodal cells is formed. In the simpler family (Nitella) the internode thus consists of a single naked cell: in the higher (Chara), this is inclosed by the so-called cortex, a layer of smaller cells proceeding from those of the upper and lower nodes;

Fig. 2.-Longitudinal Section of the apical bud of Chara.