154 CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS

Roscoe and Schorlemmer's Treatise on Chemistry (187888); Watts's Inorganic Chemistry, and Organic Chemistry; Wilson's Inorganic Chemistry (new ed. 1885); Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry (new ed. 1868-79); Ladenburg's Handwörterbuch der Chemie; Kopp's Geschichte der Chemie (1843-47); and Entwickelung der Chemie in der Neueren

CHEMNITZ

the first Pharmacy Act of 1852. The main result of this act was to create a class of Pharmaceutical Chemists,' alone empowered to use and exhibit that or any equivalent title, and consisting, 1st, of those already members of the society; and 2dly, of such persons as should pass the examinations, as con ducted by its two Boards in England and Scotland The bill, as passed, involved no compulsion on any persons to go through these examinations, nor dat it confer any privilege or monopoly on the pharmaceutical chemist except the exclusive right to that title. The dispensing of medicines and sale of poisons was still left open to any one who chose to engage in it. Nor was it till the Act of 1868 that the term chemist and druggist came to signity a specially qualified person or one possessing exclusive rights. By that act all persons not in business on their own account prior to 1st August 1868, had (except some who for a time were allowed to pass a modified examination to pass two Preliminary and the Minor Examina tions, and after that were entitled to have their names placed on the Register of Chemists and Druggists for the United Kingdom;' and r person who was not on that register could legally use the title, or (with certain exceptions in favoar of physicians, apothecaries, veterinary surgeons, &c.) sell or dispense certain poisons specified in schedules to the act. Any person wishing to us the style Pharmaceutical Chemist,' had to pass a further examination called the 'Major,' and thus arose the two grades in what we may now call, in view of its educational qualification, the profession of pharmacy. See PHARMACY ACTS.

Zeit (1873); Thomson's History of Chemistry (1830-31). Chemists and Druggists. Up to the pass. ing of the Pharmacy Act of 1868 the term chemist and druggist was merely a title descriptive of certain branches of trade, just as tailor and clothier,' or any other such combination. Any one was free so to describe himself and to prosecute that calling to the best of his ability, untouched by any special legislation, either regulative or protective. The class, like the Apothecary (q.v.), was in its beginnings closely allied to, if indeed at all distinguishable from, that of merchants and grocers, and never formed a distinct guild, and, until the Pharmaceutical Society was founded, was without permanent organisation. And owing to the absence in Scotland of the apothecaries, as a class distinguishable from druggists, the history of the latter class in that country does not, at least up to the passing of the Pharmacy Act of 1882, correspond accurately with that of their English brethren. The policy these latter pursued for a long period of their history may be described as purely defensive, and any organisation they formed was in response to some attack from one of the other orders. As early as 1802 such a defensive association was formed, and from 1812 to 1815 engaged in very active opposition to the bill promoted by the Associated Apothecaries.' One of the objects of that bill was to bring the chemists and druggists under the control and surveillance of a body base of the Erzgebirge, and at the confluence of the Chemnitz, a town of Saxony, is situated at the consisting chiefly of apothecaries, on which the river Chemnitz with three other streams, 51 miles chemist and druggist was not represented at all. SSE. of Leipzig by rail, and 43 WSW. of Dresden. The upshot was that the promoters of the bill introduced a clause into the Act of 1815, which it dom-the Saxon Manchester' its townsfolk call It is the principal manufacturing town of the kingwas understood at the time would completely it its industry consisting in weaving cottons, exempt the chemist and druggist from the operation woollens, and silks, and in printing calicoes, chiefly of the bill. In spite, however, of this understandfor German consumption. It supplies the world ing, which seems to have been respected for twentywith cheap hosiery, and makes mixed fabrics of six years, the bill was in 1841 made use of to punish a chemist and druggist for prescribing and America. It has several extensive machine. wool, cotton, and jute for the markets of Europe medicine, although that was a function which, factories, producing locomotives and other steamrightly or wrongly, he had exercised previous to 1815. In 1841 a bill again threatened to subject the engines, with machinery for flax and wool spinning, i chemist and druggist to the control of the apothe-weaving, and mining industry. Created a free imcaries, but was at length defeated. It now became perial city as early as 1125, Chemnitz suffered much evident, not only that a permanent society to pro- during the Thirty Years' War. Pop. (1801) 10,835; tect the interests of the craft was necessary, but (1861) 45,532; (1885) 110,817. that the only wise policy was to educate and organise themselves in such a way as would deprive the physicians and apothecaries of any excuse for further interference. This led to the formation of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, which was founded in 1841 and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1843. As declared in the charter, the main objects of the society were those of advancing chemistry and pharmacy and promoting a uniform system of education of those who should practise the same; and also for the protection of those who carry on the business of chemists and druggists;' and to enable it to carry these out successfully the society appointed professors and examiners, and afterwards proceeded to promote a bill in parliament for the recognition and protection of the titles they proposed to confer on those who passed the examina tions. This was naturally a work of time, and in the meanwhile an important act in relation to the sale of poisons-viz. the Sale of Arsenic Act (1851)-1586. was passed, and drew the attention of government to the absence of a definite class of persons qualified by training and education to have the custody and sale of poisonous substances intrusted to them; so that this to some extent led up to the passing of

Chemnitz, MARTIN, the most eminent Lutheran theologian in the second half of the 16th century, was born at Treuenbrietzen, in Brandenburg, 9th November 1522. He had a hard struggle with poverty in his early years, and had repeatedly to interrupt his university studies at Frankfort-onthe Oder and Wittenberg in order to obtain by school-teaching the means of pursuing them; bit at length his proficiency in astrology led to his being appointed librarian of the ducal library at Königsberg in 1550, and from that time he devoted himself entirely to theology. In consequence of his opposition to the teaching of Osiander he was obliged to leave Königsberg and proceed to Witten berg (1553), where he delivered lectures on the Loci communes of Melanchthon, which were pub lished after his death as Loci theologici (1391). He was appointed a preacher at Brunswick in 1554, and superintendent in 1567, and died there 8th April The chief works of Chemnitz were his Examen Concilii Tridentini (4 vols. 1565-73; new ed. Berlin, 1862), which was the first thoroughgoing criticism of Tridentine doctrine from a Protestant point of view; and his share in preparing and securing the acceptance of the Formula of

CHEMNITZIA

Concord '—the next in importance to that of Jacob Andrea His Corpus Doctrina Pruthenicum, written in conjunction with Morlin (1567), became a standard work of orthodox Lutheranism. In his In duabus Naturis in Christo (1571) Chemnitz developed the doctrine of the ubiquity of Christ in a form mediating between Luther and Melanchthon. In every other point of his theology he was a steadfast follower of Luther. His Life has been written by Pressel (1862), Lentz (1866), and Hachfed (1867).

Chemnitzia, a large genus of gasteropod modiuses, named in honour of a German conchologist of the 18th century. They have a slender, elongated, many-whorled shell, the whorls striated, a simple semi-oval aperture, and a horny operclam. There are many recent species scattered ail over the world. No less than 180 fossil species have been described from the Lower Silurian up. wards, but it is probable that different animals with similar shells are included under this one title.

Chemosh, the national god of Moab, called in 1 and 2 Kings 'the abomination of the Moabites. The derivation of the name is uncertain, the most probable being that of Gesenius, from kāmash 1 = kabhash), 'to trample under foot,' with which the Syrian kemish, 'nightmare,' is connected. Chemosh was essentially one with the Moloch or Malcom (*king') of the Ammonites, and both were sply forms of the Canaanite Baal (q.v.). On the Mabite Stone' King Mesha attributes the Israelite successes over Moab to the wrath of (5emosh, and Moab's deliverance to his assistance. His worship was marked by cruel rites and lascivions orgies, Mesha's first-born son was doubtless sacrificed as a burnt-offering to him (2 Kings, iii. Solomon in his later years consecrated high piaces' (Bámóth) to Chemosh in Jerusalem.

of his life. As a singularly thorough Hebrew and Arabic scholar he had few equals among his contemporaries, and his translation of the Arabic classic, the Assemblies of Al Hariri (1867), led to his appointment to a chair of Arabic at Oxford in 1868. He was one of the company of Old Testament revisers, and besides other works, published an edition of the Machberoth Ithiel (1872), a Hebrew version of the Assemblies.' He died 11th February 1884.

Chengalpat. See CHINGALPAT. Chénier, MARIE ANDRÉ, a distinguished French poet, was born at Constantinople in 1762. He was the third son of Louis Chénier, French consul-general in that city. His mother was a Greek lady of remarkable beauty and accomplishments. While quite a child he was sent to France; and in his thirteenth year he was placed at the Collège de Navarre, Paris. Partly from predilection, and partly through the influence of his mother, Greek literature was from the beginning his special subject of study. At the age of twenty he entered the army, and served for six months in Strasburg as sub-lieutenant; but disgusted with the frivolity of the military life of that day, he returned to Paris, and gave himself up to a strenuous course of study. To this period belong two of his most famous idyls, Le Mendiant and L'Aveugle. His health giving way, he travelled in Switzerland, Italy, and the Archipelago. In 1786 he returned to Paris, and began several of his most ambitious poems, most of which, however, remained fragments. The most noteworthy are Suzanne, L'Inven tion, and Hermes, the last being in plan and spirit an imitation of the great poem of Lucretius; for Chénier shared the beliefs of the 18th-century philosophers of France. In 1787 he went to Eng land as secretary to the French ambassador, but seems to have found his residence there as unconChemulpo, a town on the west coast of Corea, genial as Heine did. Returning to Paris in 1790, he 25 miles by road WSW. of the capital, Soul. It is found himself in the ferment of the Revolution. one of the three treaty ports opened in 1883 to foreign commerce, the volume of which has since ardent support; but alarmed by its excesses he Up to a certain point he gave the movement his steadily advanced, in spite of the drawbacks resulting from the great difference between high and low mortally offended Robespierre by certain denunciawater here (33 feet), and the want of wharves, Intory pamphlets. He was thrown into the prison of 16 the imports were valued at $1,544,000, the Saint-Lazare, and after six months was executed exports at $217,000; and in July 1887 the number of close of the Reign of Terror. on the 25th July 1794, just three days before the resident foreign merchants had increased from 482 in 1883 to 1175, including 841 Japanese, 298 Chinese, 5 Americans, and 31 Europeans. Since 1885 it Las been connected by telegraph with Tientsin.

Chemung Period, name given by American geologists to one of the principal divisions of Devonian time.

Chenab', one of the five rivers which give name to the Punjab, rises in the Kashmir range of the Himalayas, winds through the gorges of Jammu, and enters British territory in Sialkot district. It art the Tavi, forms the boundary between Sialkand Gujerat districts, and enters Jhang desert, where it runs through a broad cultivated valley. Here its depth varies from 10 feet in the dry season to 16 feet in the rains; but its course often shifts. It unites with the Jhelum at Timmu, afterwards eives the Ravi, and, as the Trimab, joins the Stej, 50 miles above Mithankot. Its length is

75 mies

Chenery, THOMAS, journalist and orientalist, was born in Barbadoes in 1826, and educated at Eton Cambridge. He was called to the bar, but was won after sent out as Times correspondent to Constantinople, where he remained during the Crimean war. Afterwards he was constantly employed on the Times staff until 1877, when he became its ator, a post which he laboriously filled till within en days of his death. But this was only one side

Chenier holds in France a somewhat similar posi tion to Keats in England. They suggest each other also by their early deaths, and by a certain affinity of genius. Other pieces of Chénier that deserve special mention are La Jeune Captive, Le Jeune Malade, and Versailles. Sainte-Beuve thus sums up the claims of Chenier: Chénier was one of the great masters of French poetry during the 18th century, and our greatest classic in verse since Boileau and Racine." The best edition of his See Sainte-Beuve, poems is Joubert's (1883). Critiques et Portraits, tome ii.; and Beeg de Fouquières, Lettres critiques sur Chénier (1881).— His younger brother, MARIE-JOSEPH DE CHENIER (1764–1811), was an ardent republican, sat in the Legislative Assembly, and wrote satires and heavy declamatory plays.

Chenille (Fr.. caterpillar'), a thick, velvetylooking cord of silk or wool (and so resembling a woolly caterpillar), used in ornamental sewing and manufactured trimmings.

Chenonceaux, a famous French chateau, standing partly on an island in the Cher, partly on a bridge spanning the river, near a station 20 miles E. by S. of Tours by rail. It was commenced in 1524 by the Chancellor Thomas Bohier, continued by Diana of Poitiers, and completed by Catharine de' Medici, who richly embellished the building, and surrounded it with a beautiful park.

It passed into the hands of the Condés, and afterwards of Madame Dupin, widow of a fermier général, who here was visited by Montesquieu, Bolingbroke, Voltaire, Rousseau, Buffon, and others. The castle is in excellent preservation; it possesses a fine chapel, a theatre, and memorials of its former occupants in furniture, personal relics, ciphers, and a collection of portraits.

Chenopodiaceæ, an order of apetalous dicoty. ledons usually regarded as reduced types of Cary ophyllaceae, and closely related to Amaranthaceae, with which some include them as Oleracea. They are herbaceous or half-shrubby plants, with simple, alternate, exstipulate leaves, and inconspicuous flowers, hermaphrodite or unisexual, usually windfertilised. There are about 500 species, mostly wood-like, and growing in waste places. They are widely diffused over the world, particularly northern Europe and Asia. Beet and spinach are among the best known and most useful plants of the order, but many others are occasionally used as pot-herbs, as some species of Chenopodium, Orache (q.v.), &c. The fruit of Strawberry Blite (Blitum capitatum and B. virgatum), a common weed in the south of Europe and the colder parts of North America, has a sweetish, insipid taste, and some resemblance to a strawberry, from the coherence of the fleshy perianths of a whole head of flowers. The seed of Quinoa (q.v.) is used for food as a kind of grain. Some are aromatic (see CHENOPODIUM). Some inhabit salt-marshes, and abound in soda. See SALTWORT.

CHERASCO

Wye, 2 miles from its influx to the Severn estuary, and 17 ENE. of Newport. It lies between bold cliffs, on a slope rising from the river, in the midst of exquisite scenery. Its noble ruined castle, later chiefly than the 12th century, stood two sieges during the great Rebellion, and has been held successively by FitzOsbornes, Clares, Bigods, Herberts, and Somersets. The railway crosses the Wye by Brunel's tubular suspension bridge (1852), 600 feet long, and 50 above high-water, the principal span being 300 feet long. Here occurs the highest tide in the British Islands, if not in Europe; though the accounts of it have been frequently exaggerated. In January 1846 it rose 47 feet above low-water mark, but this level, though often approached, is not known to have been exceeded. Pop. (1851) 4295; (1881) 3591.

Cheque is a money order on a banker, payable on demand. It is really a Bill of Exchange (q.v.), and is subject to the provisions of the Act of 1882, which contains special clauses relating to cheques. If it is not presented within a reasonable time, the drawer is discharged should the banker fail, but the holder can claim against the banker's estate. banker bears the risk of the forgery of the drawer's signature, but is not responsible for a forged indorsement. A cheque is held as payment of a debt until dishonoured on presentation; it is not payable after the drawer's death or bankruptcy.

The

A crossed cheque is an ordinary cheque with two transverse lines drawn across it, which have the effect of making it payable only through a banker. When a particular banker's name is written between the lines, the cheque is said to be specially crossed, and is only payable to the banker whose name it bears. Wanting a particular name, or with the words & Co.,' it is said to be generally crossed, and is payable through any banker. An ordinary cheque may be crossed either generally or specially by the holder. The crossing is a material part of the cheque, and may not be obliterated or altered, except as provided by the Bills of Exchange Act, 1882.

In the United States a cheque is not a bill of exchange, though it has many of its properties. It is not a legal tender, nor is it a payment of debt till honoured at the bank. It has no days of grace, and is due only after presentation. The bank is responsible for paying a forged cheque, and is liable for wrongfully dishonouring it.

Chenopodium, a genus of Chenopodiaceæ, of which some of the common species are well known by the name of Goosefoot, as weeds growing in gardens, on heaps of rubbish, and in waste places. The species are mostly annuals, with entire or toothed leaves, often with a sort of mealy hoariness, and are widely distributed, or becoming naturalised in all climates. The leaves of many species are used as a substitute for spinach, particularly those of the Good Harry, Wild Spinach, Allgood, or English Mercury (C. bonus-Henricus), a common wayside perennial, which is still sometimes cultivated; the young shoots are also used as asparagus. C. intermedium, C. album, &c., annuals, common in waste places, are also excellent substitutes for spinach. C. Vulvaria (Stinking Goosefoot), an annual with an odour compared to that of stale salt fish, growing in waste places, especially near the sea, was formerly in popular repute as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue. Cher, a French river, flowing 200 miles northC. purpurascens (Atriplex) is a handsome annual ward and north-westward till it falls into the introduced from China. C. Botrys, a native of the Loire below Tours. It is navigable from Vierzon. south of Europe, with pinnatifid leaves resembling-CHER, to which the river gives its name, is the those of the oak, and hence called Jerusalem Oak, is in use as an expectorant and anthelmintic. It is agreeably fragrant. C. ambrosioides has a strong aromatic odour, is used in Mexico instead of tea, and is occasionally cultivated in France, an infusion of it being deemed useful in nervous disorders. The closely allied C. anthelminticum, the Wormseed of the United States, has a strong and somewhat aromatic odour, and a high reputation as a vermifuge, due to the presence of an essential oil. More important than any of the species, as affording a principal article of food in the countries of which it is a native, is Quinoa (q.v.).

Cheops (a Grecised form of Khufu) was a king of Memphis in Egypt, belonging to the fourth dynasty, famous as the builder of the largest of the existing pyramids. The date usually assigned to him is about 3000 B.C. His successor was his brother Chephren (Khafra), who built the next largest pyramid. See EGYPT, PYRAMIDS.

Chepstow, a river-port of Monmouthshire, a sub-port to Gloucester, on the right bank of the

central department of France. The surface con-
sists of plain and well-wooded hills (1600 feet),
and produces corn, fruits, wine, hemp, flax, &c.
The climate is mild and pleasant, except in the
swampy district in the north, which has, however,
been largely drained in late years. Agriculture,
sheep and cattle rearing, and bee-keeping, give
employment to many. The rivers abound in fish,
and wolves are still sometimes seen. Education
is backward, nearly two-thirds of the people being
unable to read or write. Area, 2770 sq. m.; pop.
(1872) 335,392; (1886) 355,349. Bourges is the

chief town.

Cherasco, a walled town in the province of Cuneo, North Italy, 37 miles SSE. of Turin by rail. Pop. 3341. In the middle ages Cherasco was one of the chief fortresses of North Italy, but its works were destroyed by the French in 1801. A peace was concluded here between Louis XIII. of France and the Duke of Savoy in 1631, and another between the Sardinian commissioners and Napoleon in 1796.