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CHERTSEY

into flint and flinty slate. Its colours are gray, white, red, yellow, green, or brown. The name Chert is sometimes limited to the finer varieties, and the coarser are called Hornstone.-The name Chert is very commonly given to the siliceous concretions which occur as nodules and layers in limestone rocks, much in the same way as flints in the chalk. When these materials exist to such an extent as to render the limestone useless for economical purposes, it is said to be ‘cherty.'

Chertsey, a town in Surrey, near the right hank of the Thames, here crossed by a seven-arch bridge (1785), 21 miles WSW. of London. It is irregularly built, chiefly consisting of two long Cross streets, and is surrounded by villas. The Many vegetables are raised for the London market. Chertsey arose in a monastery founded in 666, and refounded in 1964 by Edgar for Benedictine monks. Charles James Fox lived on St Anne's Hill, an abrupt elevation about a mile from the town; and the pt Cowley spent the closing years of his life in Chertsey, in a house that is marked with an inscripton. Pop. of parish (1861) 6589; (1881) 9215.

chief trade is in malt and flour.

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Cherub (Heb, k'rūbh), in the plural Cherubim or Cherubs, is the Hebrew name of a winged creature with a human countenance, which in the Scriptures is almost always represented in connection with Jehovah, and especially as drawing tus chariot throne. In Scripture the cherubim appear to be quite distinct from the angels, who are Jehovah's messengers, while the cherubim are found where God himself is personally present, ad are the living bearers of God manifesting hat if in his glory on the earth. It is possible to trace a development both of their form and thetr significance. While they are always conreived as living creatures, their perfectly free power of movement seems to suggest a connecn with the thunder-clouds which reveal to the world the majesty of God. In the 18th Psalm it is said Jehovah rode upon a cherub, and did 4: : yea, he flew swiftly upon the wings of the nd and elsewhere the clouds are called the ehariot of Jehovah. To the Hebrew idea of the eleb in this aspect of it) is allied the Indian enception of the bird Garuda, the swift bearer Vishnu, and the swift-winged four-footed bird which in Eschylus carries Oceanus through the ether, as well as the (later) Greek and Roman representations of the griffins bearing Apollo or Artemis. According to Sayce, the word is prob. ay connected with the Assyrian kirubu, the Bae denoting the winged bull which guarded the house from the entrance of evil spirits, and at the same time with kurubu, the circling bird -Le, according to Franz Delitzsch, the vulture. Phonicia took the idea from Babylonia, and the two cherubs made for Solomon (1 Kings vi.

were wrought by Phoenician artificers. herbim are mentioned in the Old Testament as guards of Paradise; a cherub with a flaming word hindered the return of the expelled human In the Holy of Holies cherubim wrought a embossed metal were represented above the terry seat, or covering of the Ark of the Cove Sant, so that they appeared to rise out of it. Figures of cherubim were also wrought into the Langings of the Holy of Holies. The cherubim that appear in the visions of Ezekiel and the Revelation of John depart much from the early fet ressentations, In Ezekiel they have the body 4 a man, whose head, besides a human countenare has also that of a lion, an ox, and an eagle; they are provided with four wings, two of which were to fly, while the other two cover the body; far human hands and arms are under the wings,

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and the whole body, before and behind, and on the hands and wings, as well as the wheels of their chariot, is spangled with innumerable eyes. In the Revelation, four cherubim, covered with eyes, and having six wings, surround the throne of Jehovah; the first has the face of a lion, the second of an ox, the third of a man, and the fourth of an eagle. As the Gospel is a unity, but fourfold, the four elements of the cherub came to be divided among the four evangelists, the human lion of Mark, the ox of Luke, and the eagle countenance being the symbol of Matthew, the of John. Most Jewish writers and Christian

Fathers conceived the cherubim as angels; and Hierarchy, makes them a separate class in the Dionysius the Areopagite, in his Celestial first hierarchy. Most theologians also considered them as angels, until Michaelis showed them to be a poetical creation. Herder, in his Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, compared them to the griffins that watch treasures and other fabulous figures. In Christian art they are generally represented the legs also being either covered by wings, or as sexless figures, with wings from the shoulders, having wings substituted for them. Very often they have also an aureole round the head.

Cherubini, MARIA LUIGI CARLO ZENOBIO SALVATORE, an eminent composer, was born at Florence on the 8th or the 14th September 1760, the tenth of a family of twelve children. He began to study music at the age of six, under his father, and at nine was sent to the academy of Bartolommeo Felici. Church works to the number of seventeen proceeded from his juvenile pen at this period, and were mostly actually performed in Florentine churches. In 1778 he went to Bologna and studied under the famous Sarti for four years, removing with him in 1779 to Milan; here he was grounded in the old Italian contrapuntal style, and also frequently assisted his master in writing minor parts of operas. In 1780 his own first opera, Quinto Fabio, was produced at Alessandria, and for the next fourteen years a succession of dramatic works followed. In 1784 he was invited to London, and held the post of composer to the king for one year. In 1785 he visited Paris, and after another short visit to Turin, returned in 1788 to Paris, which remained thenceforth his home. Up to this period his operas had been in the light Neapolitan style of Paisiello or Cimarosa; they are now forgotten. But after his arrival in Paris a change becomes gradually apparent, contemporaneously with and in the same direction as the development of the style of Mozart in Figaro and Don Giovanni, Cherubini, however, had no opportunity of hearing these works at this time, and advanced quite independently on the same path. This change is already distinguishable in his first Parisian opera, Demophon, given in 1788, but is more distinctly developed in Lodoiska, which was received in 1791 with astonishment and admiration. Subsequent works were Elise (1794), Modée (1797), Les deux Journées (or The Water-carrier,' 1800), his operatic masterpiece, and Anacreon (1803). His lofty unbending manner, however, had excited a prejudice against him in the mind of Napoleon. He visited Vienna in 1805, and made the acquaintance of Haydn, Beethoven, and Hummel. Two of his operas were produced there; but the war between Austria and Napoleon cut short his stay, and he returned to France dispirited. In 180S, on a casual visit to Belgium, he entered on a third period of musical activity with the composi tion of the first of his great church works, the Mass in F. In December 1814 Louis XVIII. made him a knight of the Legion of Honour. Next year he paid a short visit to England which left a bad effect on his health. Shortly after, he succeeded

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to the post of maître-de-chapelle to King Louis. The list of his works from this period comprises a Mass in C (1816), and Requiems in C and D (1817 and 1836), all of the highest rank, besides numerous other church pieces, and six string quartets. In 1822 he became director of the Conservatoire of Paris, which his energetic administrative talent soon raised to the greatness it still preserves. His work on counterpoint and fugue appeared in 1835, and remains a standard book. His severe rule over the institution continued till 1842, when, after only a month's retirement, he died on 15th March. The universal feeling in musical Europe at the time was that its foremost figure was gone. Though the greater part of his career was run in Paris, and the most famous French operatic composers of the early part of the century, Boieldieu, Auber, Halévy, &c., came under his instructions, he has not permanently influenced the French school; his music lives and preserves a strong hold rather in Germany, with the musicians of which he has more affinity. His style has been aptly called that of effect, the means employed being unusual harmonic and orchestral combinations, the agreement of the music with the dramatic situation, and a remarkable architectural structure in point of form. He is always careful, however, to keep within orthodox limits. As already indicated, his operas have numerous parallels with those of Mozart; but along with the lustre and polish of skilfully cut gems, they possess also somewhat of their coldness. The emotional element is often strong, but is always dominated by the intellectual. His artistic ideal was a lofty one, and he never stooped from it. His music commanded high admiration from Beethoven, who even took him as a model of style in composition for the voice. His masses and overtures are well known, and frequently performed in this country, and at least Medée and the Deux Journées have kept a place on the stage. The stern manner of the grim Florentine' finds illustration in his stereotyped reply to all requests in connection with his office, It cannot be done, from which, however, he frequently departed; and he inspired almost enthusiastic attachment in many of his pupils. The antagonism between him and Berlioz, on the other hand, is strongly brought out in the memoirs of the latter; and he was prejudiced against Beethoven. See the Life of Cherubini by E. Bellasis (Lond. 1874); and also the more recent Life by M. Arthur Pougin, which appeared first in Le Menestrel (1882-83), and goes far to vindicate him from the repellent asperity with which he has been reproached.

CHESHIRE

odorata of the older botanists), a native of the south of Europe and of some parts of Asia, common in the neighbourhood of houses in Britain, although probably not a true native, is frequently cultivated in Germany under the name of Spanish or Anise Chervil. In Scotland the plant is popularly called Myrrh. Its smell is considered attractive to bees; and the insides of empty hives are sometimes rubbed with its leaves, to induce swarms to enter. The species of Charophyllum, coarse weeds, are also called chervil.

Cherwell, a stream falling into the Isis or Thames near Oxford (q.v.).

Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland and Virginia, and dividing the former state into two parts, is the largest inlet on the Atlantic coast of the United States, being 200 miles long, and from 4 to 40 broad. Its entrance, 12 miles wide, has on the north Cape Charles, and on the south Cape Henry, both promontories being in Virginia. The bay has numerous arms, which receive many navigable rivers, such as the Susquehanna on the north, the Potomac, Rappahannock, and York on the west, and the James on the south-west. Unlike the shallow sounds towards the south, this network of gulfs and estuaries, with its noble feeders, affords depth of water for ships of any burden, virtually carrying the ocean up to the wharves of Baltimore and the arsenals of Washington.-For the Chesa peake and Shannon sea-fight, see BROKE. anatomist, was born in 1688, at Somerby, near Cheselden, WILLIAM, a great surgeon and Melton Mowbray, and having in 1711 established himself in London as a lecturer on anatomy, was next year elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was afterwards appointed surgeon to St Thomas's, St George's, and Westminster hospitals, where he acquired great reputation, especially by his lateral operation for the stone' in 1727 (see LITHOTOMY). In 1728 he operated on a young man born blind, and the successful result of the operation did much to develop the theory of Vision (q.v.). He died at Anatomy of the Human Body (1713), long a textBath, 10th April 1752. His four works included book on the subject in England; and Osteolo graphia, or Anatomy of the Bones (1733). See an article in the Asclepiad (1886).

Chesham, a market-town of Buckinghamshire, 18 miles NW. of London. Pop. of parish (1881) 6502.

Cheshire, a maritime county in the west of England, on the Welsh border, bounded N. by the river Mersey, separating it from Lancashire, and partly also by the Irish Sea. Its greatest length from north to south is 48 miles; greatest breadth from east to west, 32; total area of land and water, 1102 sq. m., of which 76 per cent, is under cultivation. The coast-line is confined to the hammer-headed peninsula, called Wirral, about 8 miles broad, between the estuaries of the Mersey and Dee. The surface forms an extensive nearly

Cherusci, a German tribe first mentioned by Caesar, whose exact locality is somewhat uncertain, save that they touched the Weser and lay north of the Harz Forest. They are chiefly memorable in connection with their great leader Arminius (q.v.). Chervil (Anthriscus Cerefolium), an umbelli-level plain between the Derbyshire and Welsh ferous plant, which has been long cultivated, especially on the Continent, as a pot-herb, and used in soups and for a garnish, &c. in the same manner as parsley. The leaves have a peculiar, somewhat sweetish, pleasantly aromatic smell and taste, by which the plant may be known from its congener Anthriscus vulgaris or Scandix Anthriscus, a poisonous weed, whose leaves have a disagreeable smell, and which is also distinguished by its hispid fruit. A. sylvestris has large roots, for the sake of which it is cultivated. The allied Venus' Comb or Shepherd's Needle (Scandix pecten-Veneris), often found in cornfields, as also S. australis of southern Europe, have a similar taste and smell, and are used in the same way on the Continent. Sweet Chervil or Sweet Cicely (Myrrhis odorata; Scandix | miles.

mountains, well wooded, and studded with small lakes or meres. This plain, comprising fourfifths of the surface, rests on new red sandstone, and is crossed, near the middle, by a tract of high ground running south-west from a promontory overlooking the Mersey, near the mouth of the Weaver, to Beeston Castle rock, 366 feet high On the east border of the county is a line of new red sandstone hills. In the east are large tracts of 1st, ni much of the county is wet and rushy. Col-measures appear on the Flintshire border, and also on the borders of Staffordshire and Derby y The chief rivers are the Dee, Mersey, and W navigable. The Dee skirts the co for 55 miles The Mersey on ises in the

hich are .. west IT 40 the

CHESHUNT

county, and runs 40 miles west-north-west to the Mersey. In addition to its river navigation, the county has an almost unrivalled system of canals, and contains the greater part of the Manchester Ship Canal. It is well intersected by railways. The chief mineral products are rocksalt and coal. The rock-salt, discovered in 1670, and mined by gunpowder, is found near the Weaver and its branches, especially near Northwich (q.v.), and at Middlewich, Winsford, and Sandbach. Much salt is also made from brine-springs 20 to 40 yards deep. Coal is worked near Chester and on the eastern borders of the county. Lead and copper mining is now almost extinct. In almost every part of the county freestone, limestone, millstone, and marl are found. The climate is moist. The soil is mostly a clayey or sandy loam, with marl and peat, and very fertile. The soil and climate are well fitted for pasturing, and dairy-farming is largely carried on, the county being noted for its cheese (see CHEESE). About 90,000 cows are kept in Cheshire, capable of producing about 15,000 tons of cheese. In the cattle-plague of 1865-66 upwards of 70,000 cattle perished, 36,000 of these being slaughtered as a preventive measure. Pop. (181) 194,305; (1841) 395,660; (1881) 664,037. There are extensive manufactures in the principal towns, especially Birkenhead, Congleton, Chester the county town), Crewe, Macclesfield, Stalybridge, and Stockport. The county is formed into eight parliamentary divisions, each returning one member, and includes the parliamentary boroughs of Birkenhead and Chester, with portions of the boroughs of Ashton-under-Lyne, Stalybridge, Stockport, and Warrington. It contains 503 civil parishes, and is mostly in the diocese of Chester. Cheshire has some Roman roads, tumuli, barrows, remains of religious houses, and many old castles and halls. Egbert, in 828, added Cheshire to the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Mercia. William the Conqueror erected Cheshire into a county palatine, under Hugh Lupus, with an independent parliament and eight barons. Henry VIII. subordinated it to the English crown; but Cheshire did not send representatives to the English parliament till 1549. See Ormerod's History of Cheshire (3 vols. 1819; new ed. 1875), and Earwaker's East Cheshire (1877).

Cheshunt, a large village of Hertfordshire, 14 males N. of London. It is famous for its rosegardens, and is the seat of a college, founded in 1768 by the Countess of Huntingdon (q.v.) at Trevecca in Brecknockshire, and removed hither in 1792 The buildings were much enlarged in 1868. Pop of parish (1851) 5579; (1881) 7735.

Chesil Bank or BEACH, a bank of gravel and shingle extending 16 miles from Bridport harbour and Burton Bradstock to Portland. It varies in height from 20 to 43 feet, and in width from 170 to 200 yards. For some part of its course it hugs the shore, but the Fleet comes between it and the land for nearly 10 miles from Abbotsbury, famous for its swannery. Towards its west end the bank is composed of sand, grit, and fine gravel, but the materials get gradually larger and larger as it is followed eastward. Good authorities believe this bank was formed by the sea as a shingle beach in the ordinary way, that it formerly tonebed the land throughout its entire course, and that it has since been separated from the shore, and converted into a bar, by the denudation of the land behind it. (See map at BREAKWATER.) Chesney ""ANCIS RAWDON, the explorer of the Euphrates rn in 1789 at Annalong in County Down zetted to the Royal Artil. he inspected the route for roved to be practicable.¦

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His first exploration of the route to India, by way of Syria and the Euphrates, was made in 1831, and he made three other voyages with the same object. The idea was taken up by government, who made a grant of £20,000 after his first expedition, but owing to the opposition of Russia it was never brought to a practical issue. He commanded the artillery at Hong-kong from 1843 to 1847. In 1850 he published his Expedition for the Survey of the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris, and in 1868 a Narrative of the Euphrates Expedi tion. He died at Mourne, 30th January 1872. General Chesney's Life by his wife and daughter, edited by Stanley Lane-Poole, was published in 1885.-His nephew, Colonel Charles Cornwallis Chesney (1826-76), was the author of the wellknown Waterloo Lectures (1861), which were delivered by him as professor at Sandhurst.— A younger brother of the latter, General George Tomkyns Chesney, who was born in 1830, was appointed member of the Council of the Viceroy of India in 1886, and is known to be the author of the clever jeu d'esprit, The Battle of Dorking (1871), and of a remarkable novel, The Private Secretary (1881).

Chesnut. See CHESTNUT.

Chess (Fr. échecs; Ital. scacchi; Ger. schach ; Dutch schaak; Low Lat. ludus scaccorum. Originally from Persian shah, a king,' thus literally the game of kings'), a game of skill for two players or parties, played with figures or pieces,' which are moved on a chequered board. The game has acquired a great and unique importance throughout the world; mainly, no doubt, in consequence of its extreme difficulty. It is the subject of a most extensive literature, and its study has become rather that of a science than a recreation. The laws governing its play are identical in all countries.

History. The origin of chess is the subject of an almost hopeless controversy. It has been claimed, by writers and by legends, for China, India, Persia, and recently with some show of reason, by a Spanish archaeologist, for Egypt. As a matter of fact, traces of the game extend beyond history, and are found among races so widely different that any scientific investigation of the matter may now be considered into Western Europe by the Arabs, or about the impossible. The game was probably introduced time of the Arab invasion (8th century); at all events it was known among the cultured classes before the Crusades (1095). As then played, it differed somewhat from modern chess and from the game as played in the East. One of the earliest references to it in literature is in a work, written about 1300, by Jacobus de Cessolis, a preaching friar, and entitled Liber de moribus hominum officiis nobilium super ludo Scaccorum. This work countries, MS. copies of it existing in various lanseems to have found its way into several European guages. An English translation from the French was printed by William Caxton in 1474-75 under the title of The Game and Playe of the Chesse, and was Modern chess-i.e. the game as now played, dates the first book printed with metal types in England. from about the middle of the 15th century. A MS, discovered in the university library of Gottingen and dated 1490 is the earliest treatise extant, although frequent mention of chess is made by earlier poets and writers. The game found its first home in Spain, where Vicent (1495) and Lucena (1497) published two volumes, now of little value, of games. They were succeeded in 1510 by Damiano, a Portuguese, whose work, though restricted to a few openings, evinces considerable genius. It was plagiarised most unscrupulously by several later writers. Damiano was followed by Ruy Lopez, a cleric of Safra in Estremadura, who is perhaps

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the most valuable of the earlier masters. His work, first published at Alcala in 1561, may be said to have laid the foundation of the modern theory of play, and the opening which bears his name is that which modern analysis has shown to be one of the soundest yet invented. Lopez's treatise was republished in Venice in 1584, and from this date the game seems to have left Spain to find a home in Italy. Here should be mentioned Paolo Boi, a native of Syracuse, who, finding no worthy opponent in his own country, made a lengthened tour through the then most civilised part of Europe. He encountered and defeated every master of the game, including the hitherto invincible Ruy Lopez.” His genius, added to a prepossessing appearance and a courteous demeanour, gained for him general admiration; he was pat-¦ ronised by Catharine de' Medici and by Sebastian, king of Portugal, both of whom conferred high favours upon him. The early Italian school, which extended from about 1550 to 1620, is identified with the names of Polerio (1590) and his followers, Salvio, Greco, and others. It may claim to be the most versatile and prolific yet founded, some of the most brilliant openings having come down to us from it. At its close, about the time of the Thirty Years' War, the study of chess was somewhat neglected, and there are no writers of note until the middle of the 18th century. At this time, however, two powerful, and to some extent rival, schools sprang up-the later Italian, led by Ercole del Rio and his commentators, Lolli and Ponziani, and the Northern school of Philidor. The former still confined itself to the study of openings and end-games; the latter turned its attention more to the middle game, advocating what is now known as play for position. Both schools, though opposed in theory, were of the greatest practical benefit to students; their work was in a great measure combined by Allgaier, of Eltern, in his well-known treatise published at Vienna in 1795.

advocate. He only partially recovered from an attack of insanity, and died at the age of forty seven. From this time the history of chess ceases to be that of a few celebrated players, and must be gathered from the magazines and weekly news paper columns devoted to it in nearly every civil ised country. Public interest in it has of late years increased with great rapidity, keeping pace, it would seem, with the progress of intellectual development. In England, where at one time or other nearly every great modern player has resided. the game has attained a dignity and importance altogether beyond that of a mere pastime, and its recognition by the state as a means of mental training has been seriously demanded. Every town and many villages have at least one clubLondon having upwards of twenty; and such centres as Dublin, Glasgow, Liverpool, and Manchester, five or six. There are also numeroas county and district associations, holding periodica meetings in different towns in their provinces, and offering prizes for competition among their mem bers. The British Chess Association, the most important federation of this kind, may fairly claim to represent national chess. Having its admin istrative centre in London, it is governed by a committee of the most eminent players throughout the kingdom, and its masters' tournaments attract the strongest players from the Continent and America. In Germany, where almost equal enthusiasm for chess prevails, every town has its club; there are many state and class associations: national tournaments are held at least once every year, and international tournaments in turn with other countries. One significant association is that of the university and college chess clubs, which, supported by many of the professors and more advanced students, are already beginning to compete with the lay clubs in their respective cities. In France there are yet few provincial clubs, | though their number is now increasing. Paris is Begun in 1745 by Stamma, a Syrian, and led so the centre of a very strong circle of players, and powerfully by Philidor, the English school had, in the Cafe de la Regence possesses the most celeduring this period, been steadily gaining strength brated chess resort in Europe. The French govern- : and importance. Writers like Sarratt, Cochrane, ment has shown its regard for the game by proLewis, and Walker were doing their best to popu-viding prizes in more than one national tournament. larise the game, and they succeeded in giving it a Among other European countries where chess is ! footing in Britain which it has never since lost. studied, must be mentioned Austria and Italy. Ot Throughout northern Europe its study became the former it is sufficient to say that the metrogeneral; in France, though there were few analyti-politan club can (1888) produce ten players the cal writers-Alexandre being the only one of import- ordinary match team) who could probably defeat ance such players as Deschappelles, Boncourt, and the same number from any club in the world. In De la Bourdonnais earned for the Parisian school a Italy the game is played in every town, and the very high reputation; the last-named player was Italian Chess Association holds an annual tourna by far the strongest of his day. In Germany, then ment. In the New World, the United States of as now, chief attention was given to theory; there America is, as may be supposed, in advance of were no very brilliant players, but the analytical all other countries. Besides numerous city clubs work of Bilguer and Von der Lasa still remains (New York alone having nine), there are six state : the standard. England, however, continued to associations, and a recently organised federation maintain its supremacy. Some of the greatest of the university clubs. In Canada the game has European players crossed the Channel and settled gained entrance into the public schools; there in London, and Howard Staunton, who defeated are clubs in nearly every town, and a national the French champion, St Amant, came to be re- association. In Australasia there are state garded as the leading player in the world. Up to associations in Victoria, New South Wales, and this time America had produced no player of more New Zealand. A national tournament has been ! than local eminence; but at the congress held at held with great success, and it is probable will New York in 1858, the first prize in the chief now take place annually in one or other of the tourney was won by a youth of twenty-one, Paul chief cities." Morphy (1837-84), of New Orleans. This player, who from the age of ten had shown a remarkable aptitude for the game, is admitted to be the greatest chess genius that has yet appeared. After his victory in New York he came over to Europe,, meeting and defeating in turn the strongest players of London and Paris. It must always be a source of regret that the world so soon lost his wonderful power. After his visit to Europe he abandoned the game in order to follow his profession, that of

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Description.--THE BOARD.-Chess is played on a square board divided by intersecting lines into 64 squares. To facilitate calculation, every alter nate square is black, or of a dark colour. The board should be placed so that each player has a white square at his right-hand corner.

THE MEN.-There are 32 men: 16 white, or of light colour, and 16 black, or of dark colour. Each player has 8 pieces (one king, one queen, two rooks or castles, two bishops, and two knights)

CHESS

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The Bishop, B, may move any number of squares in a straight line diagonally. (It will be seen that each bishop remains throughout the game on squares of one colour.)

The Knight, Kt (or sometimes in American literature, S, from the German Springer), moves to the next square but one of different colour from that on which it rests. Its move forms the diagonal of a parallelogram of three squares by two. (The knight is the only piece having power to move over an intervening piece.)

The Pawn, = P, moves one square forward only, but captures diagonally. For its first move, but not afterwards, a pawn may move two squares, but if in doing so it pass an oping pawn, the latter may take it as if it had moved one square only. A pawn which succeeds in crossing the board must be exchanged for a queen or any other piece of the same colour, except a king. Ail pieces, except the knight, can move only acro unoccupied squares, and all pieces (not the pawns capture in the direction of their moves.

The object of the game is to take the opponent's king and when the king is attacked, warning must be given by the call of check. If the king cannot avoid the 'check'—that is, if he cannot escape cart are by his opponent's next move, he is check tate, and the game is over. The game therefore "ways stops one move short of the actual capture | king.

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Laws. Although the main rules governing chess play are identical throughout the world, there are several minor questions awaiting a general settlement. A complete code of laws (which would necessarily be complex), published with approval and authority of the various national associations, has be

come almost a necessity. Where no published code has been fixed upon, the following may be enforced without injustice:

(N.B.-In cases where no distinction is implied, the word 'piece' is to be understood to include piece and pawn.)

Lots to be drawn for first move, and afterwards throughout a match or sitting each player has the first move alternately, whatever has been the result of the previous game. The player having first move has a right to choice of men. If board or pieces have been wrongly placed at the beginning of a game, the mistake may be rectified before four moves have been made, but not after. A piece touched must be moved, if it can be legally, or unless, before touching it, the player say jadoube, or words to that effect. (If the piece cannot be legally moved, the king must be moved, but may not castle.) If more than one piece be touched, the adversary may select which is to be moved. An enemy's piece touched must be taken if it can be legally; if not, the king must be moved, but may not castle. Moving the king is a penalty enforceable by the opponent, who must, however, enforce it before he makes his next move. A false or illegal move, and all moves made subsequently, must be revoked, and legal moves made in their has made a move or touched a piece in reply. If a stead. No penalty can be enforced if the opponent player move out of his turn, he must retract the move, but may be called upon by the opponent to play the piece touched on his next move. If a player touch more than one square with a piece, he may not, for that move, play it to any of the squares so touched. If he touch all the squares to which it can be played, he must play it to any one of them his opponent chooses. In castling, the king must be moved first, or both pieces together. A pawn advanced to the eighth square must be exchanged for a piece (not a king) of the same colour, and the move is not complete until a piece is demanded. It is not necessary to call check,' but the player neglecting to do so, cannot enforce a penalty if his opponent does not notice the check.' A player may at any time call upon his adversary to mate him within fifty moves, and if at the expiration of such fifty moves, no capture has been made, no pawn moved nor mate given, a draw may be claimed. Bystanders may not interfere unless appealed to by a player, unless board or men have been wrongly placed, or unless a false or illegal move has been made. In the last case, however, they have no right to interfere until a move has been inade in reply.

Notation. The necessity for some method of recording moves and games of chess has been recognised from a very early period. It is to be regretted that no universal notation has been adopted; as it is, the systems which are in vogue are all more or less dependent upon the language of the nation using them. The modern systems of notation are separable into two classes, which differ essentially The first, that adopted by English and Latin speaking countries (France, Italy, &c.), has reference to the pieces. It is somewhat cumbrous, but is more descriptive and intelligible. The second, adopted by Germany and northern Europe, has reference mainly to the

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