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board. It is more concise and exact than the first should follow these moves with a board and men, class.

and will see then that White can only move one of

The following diagram will explain the English his bishops-i.e. the king's bishop-and can only or Latin system of notation :

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The squares on the first rank are named after the pieces which occupy them at the beginning of the game; thus (beginning at the left hand) the first square is called the queen's rook's square Q R sq., The since it is occupied by the queen's rook. second square is called queen's knight's square Q Kt sq.; the third, queen's bishop's square QB sq.; the fourth, queen's square Q sq., and so on. The squares on the first rank are called home squares. The files are numbered according to their distance from the home square, and take the latter's title. Thus the squares in front of the king's square are called king's second or K 2, king's third: K 3, and so on to K 8. Each player numbers the squares from his own side of the board, so that each square has two names (White K B square is Black K B 8, Black Q R4= White QR 5, &c.). A reference to the diagram will make this clear.

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In recording a game, the moves of White and Black pieces are each arranged in column, the name of the piece is then given, and the square is indicated to which it moves-e.g.:

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move it to one bishop's fourth square-i.e. queen's bishop's fourth. (The queen's bishop cannot of course move at all, until released by the move of either the queen's pawn or queen's knight's pawn.) Black's third move requires no further explanation. White's fourth move, 4 B takes P (ch.), means that his bishop captures one of the enemy's pawns and gives check. It is not necessary to say which pawn, since only one can be captured-i.e. Black's king's bishop's pawn. For his fourth move, Black has little choice; he must avoid the threat of capture, and he does so by taking the checking piece-i.e. king takes bishop.

The English notation is shortened in some cases as follows, the same moves being recorded in each case: (a) White.

1. P - K 4.
2. Kt K B 3.

Black.

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3. B B 4. 4. B x P (ch.). Here the dash signifies to,' and x signifies 'takes.' The numbers of Black's moves are omitted, since they correspond with those of White.

(b) In some cases the dash is omitted, and the moves recorded simply P K 4, Kt K B 3, BB4, &c.

(c) The moves are arranged in line, White's move being first, thus: 1 P to K 4, P to K 4, 2 Kt to K B 3, Kt to QB 3, 3 B to B 4, B to B 4, 4 B takes P (ch.), K takes B.

fraction, White's move being the numerator, and
(d) The moves are written in the form of a
Black's the denominator, and the number of the
move is denoted by a figure prefixed-e.g:
P-K 4 Kt-K B3 B-B4 Bx P(ch.
1. P-K 4' 2.
; 4.
Kt-Q B3 B-B4 KXB
We give a diagram of the board after the above
moves have been played:

DODO

BLACK.

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DOD

3.

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Here the figures give the number of the move, and 1 P to K 4 signifies that White for his first move plays a pawn to the king's fourth square. It is not necessary to say which pawn, since only one-i.e. the king's pawn can be moved to the king's fourth quare. Black then has to play, and makes a similar move, counting from his side of the board. For his second move, White plays his knight to king's bishop's third square, and again it is not necessary to say which knight, since only the king's knight can move to K B3. Black's second move is his queen's knight to queen's bishop's The German notation (known sometimes as third stquare 'White's third move is king's bishop | Philidor's, from having been used in that master's to queen's bishop's fourth square. The student treatises on chess) consists in denoting the ranks

WHITE.

Fig. 3-Position after Black's Fourth Move.

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165

Castling, a double move allowed once on the part of each player in a game. The rook is moved to the square next the king, and the king is then moved to the other side. Figs. 5 and 6 show the operation of castling:

BLACK. d

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Thus, referring to the English system, the White king's square is denoted by e 1, the Black queen's square by d 8. In the German system all the squares are counted from White's side only. To denote a move, the first letter of the piece is given, then the square on which it stands, and lastly, the square to which it moves. The moves of pawns are not preceded by any initial letter. A capture is denoted by a colon placed after the move, check is represented by +, or a check and capture by + Castling on the king's side is denoted by 0-0, and on the queen's side by 0-0 -0. Taking the same moves as before, the game would be recorded therefore as follows:

White.

1.2-4.

2 Kt gl-f3. 3 Bf1-4.

4. Be 4-f7+

Black.

1. e 7 e 5.

2. Kt b8c 6. 3. Bf 8 – c 5. 4. Ke8-f7:

This system may be and is in some cases still further abbreviated by the omission (a) of the initial letters of the pieces, or (b) of the square from which the piece moves; and the moves may also be written in line or fractionally as in the Latin system.

TECHNICAL TERMS.-The following list is not exhaustive, only the terms in general use being given:

Bindfold Chess, or Chess sans roir, the game played mentally, without sight of board or men. This almost inexplicable feat is not together one of memory, as is generally sapsed; it is rather the result of a special faulty not necessarily corresponding with that for ordinary chess. Some great masters, Botably Mr J. H. Blackburne, of London, can conduct as many as twelve games blindfond simultaneously; and most players of first and second rate strength can play at least one in this way.

1

The conditions under which castling is allowed are: (a) That neither king nor rook have been moved; (b) that no piece intervenes; (c) that the king is not in check; (d) that the king does not cross a square commanded by an opposing piece or pawn.

Check, the warning which must be given when the opponent's king is attacked.

Checkmate, a position in which the king cannot avoid capture on his opponent's next move. Checkmate is from the Persian shah mát, 'the king is dead.'

Discovered check, an attack which is opened on the king by the removal of an intervening piece or pawn.

In the diagram (fig. 7) the king is not in check; but if the rook be moved, the diagonal with the bishop is opened, and 2 the rook is said to discover check.' En passant.-A pawn which, having moved two squares for its first move, and thus passed an opposing pawn, may be taken, on the next move only, by the latter, en passant.

En prise.-A piece is said to be en prise when it is in a position to be captured by an opposing piece or pawn, and is not properly defended.

Exchange, the capture of a piece in return for the loss of one of equal value. To win the exchange

Fig. 5.-Castling with King's Rook.

a, before castling.

b, after castling.

Fig. 6.-Castling with Queen's Rook. a, before castling

b, after castling.

is to capture a rook in return for the loss of a bishop or knight. To lose the exchange' is to capture a bishop or knight in return for the loss of a rook.

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Gambit, a game in which one player, at the beginning, voluntarily sacrifices part of his force (often a pawn) for the sake of an ultimate advantage.

Fig. 7.-Discovered Check.

J'adoube, an expression necessary before a piece or pawn may be touched for the purpose of adjustment, &c. The rule otherwise is that a piece or pawn touched must be moved.

Opening. The various methods of beginning the game have been the subjects of much study, and are so complex as to elude anything like exhaustive analysis. Openings are classed as: (a) Gambits (see above), (b) Games, in which the line of play does not involve any sacrifice, and (c) Defences, which have reference to the line of play adopted by the second player. Openings in which both players move the king's pawn to king's fourth square for their first moves are arbitrarily classed as Regular,' all others as Irregular.' All openings of repute have distinctive titles, often being named after their inventors or from some country where they are popular. Steinitz Gambit, Scotch Game, French Defence, are examples. The study of openings is most difficult and practically end less, and should not be begun until the student has some practical acquaintance with the game.

Problem, an imaginary position in which the winning line of play is artfully concealed, and has to be discovered in accordance with given conditions. BLACK (4 pieces).

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another piece. (Of course a queen is selected in
most cases, as the most valuable piece.)
Stalemate, a position in which the king, though
not attacked, cannot move without being
subject to capture, and in which no other
move by any other piece or pawn is possible.
The game in this case is drawn.

Time Limit, a condition of modern play under which each player is compelled to make a certain number of moves (generally twenty in each hour. The time is recorded by an ingenious arrangement of clocks, one being set going when the other is stopped.

Literature.-The following works on chess may be consulted with advantage: For history and litera ture, The History of Chess, by Forbes; Quellenstudien zur Geschichte des Schachspiels, by Dr A. Van der Linde (Berlin, 1880). For laws, &c., Chen Praxis, by H. Staunton. For theory, The Chest Player's Handbook, by H. Staunton (1847-49), Handbuch des Schachspiels, by Bilguer and Von der Lasa (Lep 1843; 6th ed. 1880); Führer durch die Schachtheore, by O. Cordel (Berlin, 1888). For practice, Cook's Synopsis:

Morphy's Games, and Book of the London Tournament, 1883. For problems, The Chess Problem, by Planck and others. See also the Chess magazines.

Chest, or THORAX, in Anatomy, is the part of the body which lies beneath the neck and above the Abdomen (q.v.), constituting the uppermost of the two divisions of the trunk, or that which contains the heart and lungs. The chest is somewhat conical in form. Its sides are rounded, but in front and behind they are flattened. The apex, or upper end, is truncated, sloping downwards and forwards; of small size, it permits of the passage of the gullet, windpipe, certain large veins and nerves from the neck into the chest, and of certain large arteries out of the chest. The broad or lower end of the cone slopes downwards and backwards, and is shut in by the diaphragm-a large muscular partition which projects upwards from the lower ribs, being convex towards the chest, and concave towards the abdomen. In Respiration (q.v.) the diaphragm descends by its own muscular con

traction, while at the same time the ribs are drawn upwards and outwards by the intercostal muscles.

The structures forming the walls of the chest are: (1) The backbone or spinal column; (2) twelve pairs of ribs; (3) the sternum or breastbone; (4) the Diaphragm (q.v.); and (5) the intercostal muscles. See SKELETON, SPINAL COLUMN, &c.

The contents of the chest are the heart, the great arteries and veins, the lungs, the trachea or windpipe, the bronchi or branches of the trachea, leading to the lungs, the cesophagus or gullet, and the thoracic duct, or general terminus of the lymphatic system of vessels, by which the chyle and lymph are discharged into the blood. For the organs of the chest, see the cut at ABDO

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MEN.

The very great importance of these parts to life, and their great liability to deranged action, renders the chest the seat of a large proportion of the diseases which afflict humanity, and especially of those which I end in death; for of the three organs which Bichat called the tripod of life-viz the brain, heart, and lungs-the chest contains two. The diseases of the chest depend in some cases on alterations in its form, as WHITE (5 picers) White to play and mate in two moves by Rickets (q.v.) and other diseases affectFig. 8. Problem by W. Skinkman, Grand Rapids, Michigan, U.S.A. ing the bones in early childhood or in youth, as by too tight lacing in girls. Queening a pain, the promotion of a pawn What are commonly called chest diseases are which has crossed the board, to the power of mainly those of the lungs and air-tubes, of which

CHEST

the principal are consumption, pneumonia, pleurisy, and bronchitis. These are treated in special articles: and for the diseases of the heart and other organs of the chest, see HEART, AORTA, ESOPHAGUS, &c. The examination of the chest in disease is largely conducted by Auscultation (q.v.) and Percussion (q.v.). For measurement round the chest, see MAN. See also DIAGNOSIS.

Chest, MILITARY, is a technical name for the money and negotiable securities carried with an army, and intended to defray the current expenses. In the British army it is in the charge of officers of the Army Pay Department.-CHEST AT CHATHAM was the name of a fund for maimed and superannuated seamen, administered at Chatham from 150 till 1803, and subsequently at Greenwich, tul superseded by the regular naval pension

system.

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the Grosvenor Hotel, the general post-office, the
free library, and the music-hall. Suburbs of villas
have recently arisen outside the walls; and a public
park was opened in 1867. On the common called
the Roodee there is a racecourse. The huge rail-
way station, with a frontage of 1010 feet, is the
centre of several important railways. Chester has
manufactures of lead, oil, and chemicals, iron-
The
foundries, and an iron-shipbuilding yard.
making of boots and shoes is an important
been greatly improved.
industry. The navigation of the Dee has lately
cheese, copper, cast-iron, and coal. Pop. (1851)
The chief exports are
27,756; (1871) 35,257; (1881) 36,788; (1888) about
38,000. The city is a county in itself. It has
returned members to parliament since the reign
of Henry VIII., but by the Distribution of Seats
Act, 1885, it lost one of its two members.

Chester was Deva or Derana Castra, an important Roman station, and has yielded many Roman remains-as masonry, coins, inscriptions, fibulæ, altars, a hypocaust, and a statue of Pallas. The British name was Caerleon: Chester, alone or in composition, represents the Anglo-Saxon Ceaster, from the Roman Castra. After the departure of the Romans it was held by Britons, Saxons, and Danes; and in 605 was laid utterly waste by Ethelfrith of Northumbria. It remained an inclosure of waste walls-occupied at times, as in 894, by a body of marauding Danes, till in 908 it was rebuilt by Ethelred of Mercia; and prosperity came after 942. Chester was the last place in England that held out against William the Conqueror; not till

Chester, an ancient episcopal city, municipal and parliamentary borough, and river-port, the capital of Cheshire, on the right bank of the Dee, 22 miles from the mouth of its estuary, 16 miles SE. of Liverpool, and 179 miles NNW. of London. Chester is one of the most picturesque towns in England. It stands on a rocky sandstone height, and is still surrounded by the entire circuit of its ancient walls, nearly 2 miles round, 7 or 8 feet thick, and forming a promenade with parapets, where two persons can walk abreast. The ancient gateways have been all rebuilt. The castle, with the exception of Caesar's Tower,' has been removed, its site being occupied by barracks and county buildings. The Dee is crossed by two bridges, the old picturesque I bridge of seven arches, and the new or Grosvenor Bridge, with a noble single arch of stone 200 feet in length (see BRIDGE, Vol. II. p. 437). The two main streets cross each other at right angles, and were cut out of the rock by the Romans 4 to 10 feet below the level of the houses. These streets exhibit the curious arrangement called the 'rows: the front parts of their second stories, as far back as 16 feet, form a continuous paved promenade or covered gallery, on in front, where there are pillars and steps up from the street below, with private houses alove, inferior shops and warebouses below, and the chief shops of the town within. There are a considerable number of the picturesque old timber houses of the 16th century, and many of the more modern buildings are in the same style of architecture. Chester Cathedral is an irregular massive structure of crumbling sandstone, 375 by 200 feet, with a massive tower of 127 feet. It was formerly the church of the abbey of St Werburgh, which for 650 years was one of the richest in England. It became a cathedral church after the dissolution of the monasteries. It is of various dates from Norman to Late Perpendicular, its most strik-palatine. On the death of John, Earl of Chester, feature being the fine Perpendicular window of the west front. The building has undergone extensive restoration under the direction of the late Sir Gilbert Scott. A part of St John's Church, a ruined Norman edifice, has lately been restored. It was a cathedral church for some years during the 11th century, when the See of Lichfield was temporarily transferred to Chester. The present shopric of Chester dates from the reign of Henry VIII Other public buildings are the town-hall,

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In the Rows, Chester.

its capture (1070) was the duke really king of England. Henry Lupus, nephew of the Conqueror, was created Earl of Chester, and until the time of Henry III. the Earls of Chester had their own courts and parliaments at Chester, with eight subfeudatories and the superiors of the great religious houses, Cheshire being then a county

Henry III. made his eldest son Earl of Chester, and since that time the title has usually been held along with that of Prince of Wales by the eldest sons of English sovereigns. Llewelyn ravaged Chester in 1255. The twenty five famous Chester mysteries or religious plays by Randle, a monk (1250 60), were acted in the church. After a long and memorable siege (1643 46), the inhabitants, who held out bravely for the king, were starved into surrender. A projected Fenian attack on the

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castle in 1867 proved abortive. Among the bishops of Chester have been Pearson, Porteus, and Stubbs. Trinity Church contains the graves of Matthew Henry, the biblical commentator, and the poet Parnell.

Chester, a city of Delaware county, Pennsylvania, on the Delaware, 15 miles SW. of Philadelphia by rail, with a military academy, large shipbuilding yards, and manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, engines, &c. Originally called Upland, it was founded by the Swedes in 1643, and is the oldest town in the state. Pop. (1860) 4631; (1890) 20,226.-SOUTH CHESTER, a manufacturing suburb, had a pop. of 7067 in 1890.

Chester, JOSEPH LEMUEL, genealogist, born in Norwich, Connecticut, 30th April 1821, was a newspaper editor in Philadelphia, and in 1858 came to England, where he edited the Registers of Westminster (1876) and other registers; part of his copy of the Oxford matriculation register has been printed (1887), and his extracts from the Bishop of London's register were published under the title London Marriage Licenses (1887). Chester was an LL.D. of Columbia College, and D.C.L. of Oxford, but always retained the title of Colonel, a reminiscence of the honorary post of aide-de-camp to a Pennsylvania governor which he had once held. He died in London, 26th May 1882. See Dean's Memoir (1884).

Chesterfield, a municipal borough in Derby. shire, on the Rother rivulet, 12 miles SSE. of Sheffield by rail. All-Saints' Church (circa 1350) has a curious crooked spire, 228 feet high, and 6 feet off the perpendicular; in Trinity Church (1838) is buried George Stephenson. Other buildings are the town-hall (1857), the Stephenson memorial hall, and the grammar-school (1574; rebuilt 1846). There are manufactures of silk, lace, earthenware, and machinery; and the neighbourhood is rich in coal, iron, and other minerals. Brindley's Chesterfield Canal (1776) extends 46 miles to the Trent. Pop. (1851) 7101; (1881) 12,221.

Chesterfield, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, EARL OF, statesman, orator, wit, and man of letters, was the eldest son of the third Earl of Chesterfield, and was born in London, September 22, 1694. He studied at Cambridge, made the grand tour, and sat in the House of Commons as member for St Germains in Cornwall from 1716 to 1726, when he became Earl of Chesterfield. In 1730 he was made Lord Steward of the Household. Until then Chesterfield, who was a Whig, had supported Walpole; but being ousted from his office because he had objected to an excise bill introduced by that minister, he went over to the opposition, and proved himself one of Walpole's bitterest antagonists. He joined the ministry formed by the Pelhams in 1744, and was in 1746 one of the principal secretaries of state. In 1748 he was compelled by ill-health and deafness to retire from public life. He was at one time on terms of intimacy with Swift, Pope, and Bolingbroke. Later in life, by obtruding on Samuel Johnson the patronage which he had withheld till the publication of the Dictionary, he drew from the lexicographer the indignant letter which will keep his name in remembrance while English literature is read. Besides writing the well-known Letters to his Son, Chesterfield contributed several papers on subjects of the hour to The Craftsman and The World. He died on March 24, 1773. The object of the Letters was to form his natural son, Philip, into an accomplished man of the world. They contain a good deal of shrewd and solid observation, but their teaching is not of an elevating nature. To shine in the world, to conform to the minute code of etiquette which then ruled society, are the ends

CHESTNUT

on which the writer sets most store. The expression is occasionally coarse, but the worst feature of the book is the manner in which Chesterfield handles the topic of gallantry, a topic to which he recurs with a most disagreeable frequency. His letters were edited by Lord Mahon (5 vols. 1845-53). See Sainte-Beuve's Critical Essay on Chesterfield (Eng. trans. 1870), and W. E. Browning's Wit and Wisdom of Lord Chesterfield (1874). Chesterfield Inlet, a narrow gulf penetrating to the westward from the NW. of Hudson Bay, its extreme dimensions being 250 and 25 miles.

Chester-le-Street, a market-town in the county of Durham, near the left bank of the Wear, 6 miles N. of Durham city. The seat of the Bishop of Bernicia from 883 to 995, it has an old collegi ate church (restored 1862), with a spire 156 feet high; whilst in the neighbourhood are Lambton, Lumley, and Ravensworth Castles, the seats of the Earls of Durham, Scarborough, and Ravensworth. Coal-mines and ironworks are numerous. Pop. of township (1851) 2580; (1881) 6646.

Chestnut, or CHESNUT (Castanea), which must be clearly distinguished from the Horse Chestnut described below, a genus of Cupuliferæ, closely allied to the Beech (Fagus), and distinguished from it by long male catkins, longitudinally set with groups of flowers, a 5-8-celled ovary, and compressed rounded nuts. The name is derived from the town of Castanum, in Thessaly. The Common,

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Spanish, or Sweet Chestnut (C. vulgaris), is said to have been first brought from Asia Minor, but has long extended over the south of Europe, where it has become completely naturalised, and forms extensive woods. It is an ornamental and stately, or, in exposed situations, a very spreading tree, of great size and longevity: the famous chestnut of Tortworth in England was known as a boundarymark in the reign of King John; while a yet more celebrated tree on Mount Etna is said to have measured 204 feet in circumference. The timber is durable and hard, and is used in house-building, for making furniture, and for many other purposes. The timber described as chestnut in ancient buildings is usually, however, really oak. The ark is

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