CHINA Hongkong, published in 1878 a Concise Chinese Intonary in which the phonetic constituents are reduced to 884. These, with the 214 ideograms, having been learned, 1098 characters in all, the student has mastered the elements of all the Chinese characters. Pronunciation is constantly varying, and his reading will often be far from giving the present truth' of the names of many eharacters; but a knowledge of these phonetic constituents does much to lighten the strain upon the theory in learning Chinese. The monosyllabic utterances, however, available to name the 43,000 characters are few indeed. In Pekinese they are only 426. Even if there were as many as 1000 different syllables in the language, eally divided among the characters, more than furry meanings would belong to each. In the Syllabic Dictionary of the late Dr Williams,, taining only 12,527 characters, placed under 552 les, there are about 150 characters placed under the monosyllable i ( = ee in see). To the eye there is no difficulty in distinguishing all these 's; bat to the ear such discrimination, unassisted other க is impossible. To assist it, there is a system tones, the number of which varies in different dos exte According to the tone in which the monosv. abie is pronounced, its meaning is different; and this renders what we call a good ear' desir ave in learning the speech of China. There are other devices by which the difficulty occasioned by the sender syllabary of Chinese speech is overcome, 195 speech, it is evident that the attempt to apply to them the categories and rules of grammar on the model of our Aryan languages must be very much love's labour lost; yet composition with them has its own rules, which are not difficult to learn. As Dr Marshman expressed it in his grammar of 1814, the whole of Chinese grammar depends on position. Under the skilful application of this principle, the Chinese characters weave the web of thought with the rapidity of engine-driven shuttles; and there has grown up an immense Chinese litera ture. Before entering on a brief description of that literature, a paragraph may be allowed to what is called pidgin English,' a sort of lingua franca, which grew up between Chinese on the seaboard and foreigners, for the purpose of intercommunication, while neither party had the means or the wish to acquire an accurate knowledge of the language of the other. Pidgin is a Chinese attempt to pronounce our word business;' and the materials of the lingo are nearly all English words similarly represented or misrepresented, and called broken English. The idiom, on the other hand, is entirely that of colloquial Chinese. Foreigners get to master it in a short time, so as to carry on long conversations by means of it, and to transact important affairs of business. Dr Williams (vol. i. p. 832) gives the following example of it, taken from the Chinese Repository, vol. x.: A gentleman meets a Chinese acquaintance, accompanying a coffin which is being conveyed along the street, and asks him who is dead ( ́ who hab die?'). No man hab catchee die,' is the answer. This one piecy coffin I just now give my olo fader. He likee too much counta my numba one ploper; s'pose he someteem catchee die, can usee he.'-'So fashion, eh? How muchee plice (price) can catchee one alla same same? as the combination of synonyms, and the mutiplication of particles hardly to be found in tue dictionaries. As a consequence, while conciseess is a characteristic of good Chinese composi t. the spoken language is verbose-e.g. the fae of The Fox and the Grapes,' told in 131 Esh words, is rendered in good Chinese by 85 characters, while a version of it in Cantonese eimal contains 163 words. Still the colloquial│I tinky can get one alla same so fashion one tousan steert is not difficult of acquisition. The writer had often occasion to remark that the children v English families resident in China, who were it restricted from intercourse with the Chinese, the colloquial more fluently and readily than the English which was spoken by their parents. After the Buddhist missionaries came to China, and scholars got some acquaintance with the use The Sanskrit alphabet, they began to devise a ***od of spelling (so to speak) their characters, kung each monosyllable into an initial and a a wound, and then joining two other characters weger, one to give the initial, and the other, A was in the same tone as the character thus ed, to give its final sound. This method, though nd cons, might have been of use to the student if fae same characters had always been employed for e same initial and the same final sounds, as in Cers's "Concise Dictionary.' But every lexico„Tapher adopted his own characters at his pleasure → the character (lí = 1 + i) is spelled in one Serta mary by H (Z-iang) and IE (ch + î); in a seer ed by fif (l'iang) and (érh, anciently called and in a third by (-iang) and (4). The Kang het lexicon, after reciting these three spelladds that the sound is the same as 里, which phonetic element, i. This spelling only dis frame the student; the Chinese scholars failed to the nature of the alphabetic signs or or the analysis of the characters which has given, their inconjugable and indeclinable Pater, and their versatility such that one of was perform the role of most of our parts of | dolla, so; this hab first chop hansom, lo!' There How vast and varied the Chinese literature is may be seen from a very brief and imperfect analysis of the contents of the catalogue raisonne of the works collected by an order of the Kien-lung reign in 1722, to be printed or reprinted as a great national library. The catalogue is arranged in four divi sions under the name of Kú, 'Arsenals, or Maga zines: the first, in 44 chapters, containing works on the classics and dictionaries necessary in the study of them; the second, in 46 chapters, works of history; the third, in 57 chapters, works on philosophy and the arts; and the fourth, in 53 chapters, works of poetry and belles-lettres, The classics are the Confucian books, and a few others, on which an amount of commentary has been expended certainly not inferior either in voluminousness or in patient care to what has been put forth on our sacred Scriptures; and it still goes on without abatement. A collection of books on them by a multitude of scholars of the present dynasty was published at Canton in 1829 in 1400 chapters. The histories are those of China itself, and are divided into four classes according to the different methods of the authors. The first place is given to the Correct' and Authoritative, or the Dynastic,' which now form a collection of twenty-four different works. The writer's own copy of it, bound in English fashion, amounts to sixty-four thick volumes, imperial 8vo size. In general, each dynastic history contains an account of the several reigns, followed by treatises on chronology, rites, music, jurisprudence, food and goods or political economy, state sacrifices, astronomy, the five elements, geography, and especially topography, and the literature. After these treatises we have a host of biographies of the most remarkable individuals of the dynasty; and the history concludes with an account of the foreign peoples with which there has been any intercourse. These notices of the dynastic histories only occupy two of the 46 chapters of the division. Among the subdivisions are three chapters on 'Books on the Constitution,' embracing such works as Ma Twan-lin's General Examination of Records and Scholars, said by Rémusat to be ‘a library in itself,' and the two continuations of it, each as voluminous as itself; and the Penal Code of the present dynasty, of which we have the translation by Sir G. T. Staunton, published in 1810. The philosophy and arts division deals with the works of the class of the literati, both orthodox and heterodox; of writers on military affairs; on legislation; on agriculture, horticulture, and the mulberry-tree; on medicine; on astronomy and mathematics; on divination; on painting, music, engraving, and other arts; on ink and inkstones; on tea and the tea-plant; on articles of diet; on the works of several of the Roman Catholic missionaries; and concludes with works of Tâoism and Buddhism. Five chapters are devoted to works on mythology and lighter subjects, not including, however, as we shall presently see, novels and romances. The belles-lettres division has the general name of Tsi, Collections' or 'Compilations.' It comprehends the various classes of polite literature, poetry, and analytical or critical works. Chinese poetry has no epic; but it is rich in ballads, lyrical and descriptive pieces, rhythmical effusions and songs, eulogies and elegies, and monumental inscrip; tions. Its poets have been without number, and its poetesses not a few. One of the Confucian classics is The Book of Poetry; and poetry is one of the standing subjects in the competitive examinations. Novels and romances, dramas, and books written in the colloquial style are not admitted into such grand catalogues as the above; but the literature is not without them. There is no more pleasant reading than some of their historical romances, such as the Expanded Narrative of the Period of the Three Kingdoms (168-245 A.D.), by a raconteur of extraordinarily graphic power, written in our 13th century. Some of the best novels have been translated into European languages: The Fortunate Union, by Sir John Francis Davis; The Rambles of the Chang-Teh Emperor in Kiang-nan, under the superintendence of the present writer; Les Deux Cousines and Les Deux Jeunes Filles Lettrées, by the late Stanislas Julien; and others, as well as some of the dramas. Great as the Chinese literature is, it would have been greater, especially in the earlier portions of it, but for the burning of the Confucian books by the founder of the Ts'in dynasty, and for the subsequent bibliothecal catastrophes' which overtook one imperial library after another down to the middle of our 6th century. Paper was made and employed for writing in our first century, and CHINCHAY-COCHA printing by means of wooden blocks, according to the fashion still prevailing, was soon practised. An edition of all the classical books was so published in 922 A.D. The invention of movable types belongs to a blacksmith called Pi Shing less than a century afterwards, though such types are only now beginning to supersede the wooden blocks. Some of the inventions claimed for China have been called in question, but about this-perhaps the most important of all inventions after the alphabet-there can be no dispute. See Prémare's Notitia Lingua Sinica (Malacca, 1831); Rémusat's Elémens de la Grammaire Chinoise (Paris, 1822); Marshman's Clavis Sinica; Julien's Syntaze Nouvelle de la Langue Chinoise (Paris, 1869-70); Gabelentz's Chinesische Grammatik (Leip. 1881); Edkins's Grammar of the Chinese Colloquial Language, commonly called the Mandarin Dialect (Shanghai. 1864); Chaliners's Structure of Chinese Characters (Aberdeen, 1882); the Dictionaries of Morrison, Medhurst, Williams, Chalmers, and others; Wylie's Notes on Chinese Literature (Shanghai, 1867); Legge's Chinese Classics, and volumes ill. xvi. xxvii. and xxviii. of the Sacred Books of the East; Biot's Le Tcheou Li, ou Rites des Tcheou (Paris, 1851); and Zottoli's Cursus Litteraturæ Sinica (Shanghai, 1879). China, or CHINA-WARE. See POTTERY. often to be met in books, and in common use on China Bark, a name of Cinchona (q.v.) Bark, the Continent. It is derived, not from the empire of China, but from Kina or Quina, the Peruvian name of cinchona. China Clay. See KAOLIN. China Grass, or CHINESE GRASS. See BнMERIA, GRASS-CLOTH. China Ink. See INK. Chinandega, the capital of a department of Nicaragua, Central America, 30 miles NW. of Leon by rail, and 13 by rail from the Pacific coast. It has considerable trade, and about 8000 inhabitants.-OLD CHINANDEGA, 5 miles to the N., has a pop. of 4000. China Root, the dry tuberous rhizome or rootstock of Smilax China, a climbing shrubby plant, closely allied to sarsaparilla; a native of China, SMILACEAE). Cochin-China, and Japan (see SARSAPARILLA and repute in Europe, but is now disused; in China, It was formerly held in high medical however, it retains its reputation, especially in rheumatic or syphilitic cases. Various American species have been from time to time introduced as substitutes. to the east of China and Siam, extending, in the China Sea, the portion of the Pacific Ocean widest application of the term, from Corea to Borneo. This extensive body of water falls into three divisions: the Yellow Sea (Chinese, Whanghai), between Corea and North China, with the gulfs of Pechili and Leaotong, and Corea Bay; the lat. to the Tropic of Cancer; and the South China Eastern China Sea (Tung-hai), from about 32 N. Sea (Nan-hai), from Formosa to Borneo, with the Philippines on the east, and forming the great gulfs of Tonquin and Siam. Many geographers limit the term to this last division. See ASIA; and for the twin dangers, typhoons and pirates, that have combined to render the navigation of these waters notoriously perilous, see separate articles under these heads. Chincha Islands, three bare, rocky islets, with a joint area of 64 miles, rising 200 feet out of the sea off the coast of Peru, opposite the Bay of Pisco. From 1841 till 1874 they yielded millions of tons of Guano (q.v.); but the beds, originally some 100 feet thick, became exhausted. Chinchay-cocha, a lake of Peru, in the department of Junin, 13,330 feet above the sea, is 36 miles long and 7 broad, with an area of about CHINCHILLA 30 m. It is the source of the river Jauga, and alunds in fish and wild-fowl. Two Chinchilla, a town of Spain, 12 miles SE. of Alete by rail, situated on an abrupt rocky hill, in which are numerous caves that serve as dwelling places It has gypsum and marble quarries and manufactures of earthenware. Pop. 6080. Chinchilla (C. lanigera), a South American rodent, well known by its soft gray fur. related animals (Lagidium peruanum and Lagostom sa trichodactylus, the Viscacha) form along with the true chinchilla the small family Chinchilde in the porcupine section of the Rodent order. All the three are somewhat squirrel-like animals, but have long hind-legs, bushy tail, very ott fur, and complete collar-bones. The chin chilla and the lagidium occur on the higher Andes Chinchilla. of Peru and Chili at a high elevation; the viscacha is found on the Pampas. The three genera differ distintly, but not widely. The chinchilla proper has ady about a foot long, and the tail measures fully 6 inches. They are extremely active animals, and cb among the rocks with the greatest agility. They are killed in thousands for the sake of their fur, A prolific as they are, seem to be diminishing in andance. The fur is used for various articles of attire, and the Peruvians are said to have formerly woven the hair into fine fabrics. See VISCACHA. Chinchon', a town of Spain, 25 miles SE of Madrid Pop. 4771. After a Countess of China, wife of the governor of Peru in 1638, Peruvian bark was named Chinchona, now habitually miselled Cinchona (q.v.). Chindwa'ra, chief town of a district in the Central Provinces of India, on a plateau 2200 feet ative the sea, 70 miles N. by W. of Nagpur. It the seat of a Free Church mission. Pop. 8220. -The district has an area of 3915 sq. m., and a 1881) of 372.899. Chinese Hemp, a kind of Corchorus (q.v.). Chinese White, a permanent white pigment d in the arts, consists of the white oxide of a. ZnO). Its manufacture was first attempted 1780, and in 1796 Atkinson patented its use as a titute for white lead, which had previously been the only available white pigment, and was a t unsatisfactory one on account of its turning non continued exposure to the atmosphere. only, however, in 1844 was a good and cheap method af preparing the pigment discovered by M. Leclaire, Chingalpat Chengalpat), a town of India, 36 SW. of Madras by rail, with district court apital, a public bungalow, and an old fort, abandoned, but formerly of great strength and Irrtance as a key of Madras. Clive captured it 1732 Pop. (1881) 5617.-The district to which, the town gives name has an area of 2842 sq. m., and a pop. (1881) of 981,381, mostly Hindus. It is a flat country, cut up by canals. The soil is poor. With 115 miles of coast, it has not a single harbour or anything like shelter from the surf. Recently, plantations of Casuarina (q.v.) have been made on the wide sand-dunes along the coast, for the supply of firewood to Madras. Chini', a village of the Punjab, 1 mile from the Sutlej's right bank, on the southern slope of a lofty mountain, 9085 feet above sea-level. It was a favourite hill residence of Lord Dalhousie. Chin-Kiang, a Chinese port on the Yang-tzekiang, in the province of Keang-su, 40 miles ENE. of Nanking. Formerly, as the southern key of the neighbouring Grand Canal, it was both an important stronghold and a centre of traffic; but it was bombarded by the British in 1842, and nearly destroyed by the Tai-pings in 1853. Opened to foreign trade in 1861, the commerce of the place has not greatly increased since, unless in the import of opium. Pop. 135,000. Chinon, an antique town in the French department of Indre-et-Loire, beautifully situated on the Vienne, 31 miles SW. of Tours by rail. Crowning a lofty rock are the ruins of its vast old castle, the 'French Windsor' of the Plantagenets, the deathplace of Henry II.; and later the residence of several French sovereigns, where, in 1429, Joan of Arc revealed her mission to the Dauphin. A farmhouse across the Vienne is pointed out as Rabelais' birthplace. Pop. 4397. Chinooks, a tribe of Indians, now nearly extinct, on the Columbia River on the west coast of North America. Their language was very difficult to learn and to pronounce, and this led to the formation of the Chinook jargon, a trader's lingua Franca, consisting of words from French and English as well as Chinook and other Indian languages. Gibbs published a dictionary of it at New York in 1863. Chin'sura, a town on the right bank of the Húgli, originally Dutch, but ceded to the British in 1825, and now included in Húgli (q.v.). pattern generally in several colours on a white Chintz, a highly glazed printed calico, with a or light-coloured ground. It was chiefly used for bed-hangings, for covering furniture, and other purposes where there is much exposure to dust, which does not adhere to its highly calendered surface. In Great Britain chintz is now mostly employed for babies' bassinettes. It has been long the practice in Persia to have the pattern on some chintzes partly in gold. Glue or other size is printed on the cloth, to which the gold dust or leaf adheres. See CRETONNE. Chiococca, a genus of Cinchonacea, of which two species in particular, C. anguifuga and C. densifolia, the former a trailing herb, the latter a bushy shrub, enjoy a high reputation in Brazil as cures for snake-bites and in the treatment of dropsy. An infusion of the root is one of the most violent emetic and drastic medicines known, but it is happily no longer used in Europe. Chioggia, or CHIOZZA, an important seaport town of Northern Italy, 15 miles SSW. of Venice, on an island at the southern end of the Venetian Lagoon, connected with the mainland by a stone bridge of 43 arches. It is founded on piles, and has a cathedral: its harbour, the deepest in the Lagoon, is guarded by forts and batteries. Pop., inclusive of Sottomarina, (1881) 25,084, chiefly engaged in the coasting trade, lace-making, weav ing, shipbuilding, and fishing. Chios (now called by the natives Chio, Italianised into Scio) is one of the most beautiful and fertile islands in the Egean Sea, belonging to Turkey, 7 miles off the coast of Asia Minor, at the entrance to the Gulf of Smyrna; about 30 miles long from north to south, by 8 to 15 miles broad, with a coast-line of about 110 miles, an area of 320 sq. m., and a pop. of about 70,000, almost all Greeks. The larger northern part is more mountainous than the southern. The climate is delightful and salubrious. Earthquakes are, however, not rare, and one in 1881 caused the death of 3558 persons, and the destruction of property to the value of three to four millions sterling. The wine produced on the north-west coast, the Vinum Arvisium of ancient times, is still esteemed. Other products are figs, also noted in classical days; mastic, silk, lemons, oranges, and olives. Goats' skins are also exported. The capital, Chios, about the middle of the east coast, contains about 13,000 inhabitants, and has a haven touched by various services of steamers, and doing a good trade. On the west coast is a rich monastery, Nea-Moni, founded in the 11th century. In ancient times excellent marble and potters clay were quarried in the mountains, and recently pits of antimony and ochre are worked. Chios is one of the places which contended for the honour of giving birth to Homer. It formed in early times one of the most flourishing of the Ionian States, and contributed 100 ships to the Greek force defeated by the Persians in the seafight off Miletus (494 B.C.). After the Persian victory the town and temples of Chios were burnt and many of the people enslaved. In more recent times the island was taken by the Genoese (1346), and by the Turks (1566), in whose hands it has since, except for a short interval, remained. It was conferred as private property on the sultana. After a long period of prosperity, Chios suffered a terrible blow during the war of Greek independence. A number of the Chiotes having in 1821 joined the revolted Samians, a Turkish fleet and army in 1822 inflicted dreadful vengeance; 25,000 Chiotes fell by the sword, 47,000 were sold into slavery, and only some 5000 escaped. A second rising in 1827 was likewise unsuccessful. The island has since been gradually recovering. Chip Hats. See BRAZILIAN GRASS. Chipmunk (Tamias striatus), a kind of squirrel, common in North America. The genus includes only a few species, often called Ground Squirrels, and distinguished from the common Sciurus by the possession of capacious cheekpouches, by the longer snout but shorter tail and ears, by the constant absence of the first upper molars. They are pretty little animals, of active Chipmunk (Tamias striatus). disposition, living in underground burrows, where they indulge to apparent excess their mania for CHIRON storing food. The food consists of nuts, seeds, an grain; and the chipmunks plunder to no ina siderable extent the fields of wheat and ma They are, like many other rodents, very proh and keep up their population in spite of heart mortality in severe winters and from the attackboys, carnivores, and birds of prey. Tamias n ticus, another American species, also occurs alg the north-east of Europe and Asia. See SQUIRMAL shire, on the Avon, here crossed by a bridge of Chippenham, a municipal borough in Wi twenty-two arches, 13 miles NE. of Bath ancient place, it was captured by the Danes fr Alfred the Great in 878, and now consists chiefly a long well-built street. It has a trade in cheese other agricultural produce, but its cloth manua tures have declined. It lost its last parliamentary member in 1885. Pop. (1841) 1875; (1881) 1352 Chippeway Indians (written also Chippe Otchipwe, and Qjibbeway), a numerous trie American Indians, belonging to the Algon stock, and now settled on a reservation in norther Minnesota, and in various districts of Canada. Chipping Norton, a small municipal borou in the North of Oxfordshire, 85 miles NW. of Lo don by rail, with woollen, tweed, and glove manu factures. Pop. (1881) 4167. Chipping Wycombe. See WYCOMBE. Chiquichiqui Palm (Leopoldinia Piassaba. the Piassaba of the north of Brazil, and one of the palms which yield the Piassaba (q.v.) fibre so muca used for making brushes. Chiquimula, a small town (pop. 6000) in the east of Guatemala, which gives name to a pro vince, and to the ISTHMUS OF CHIQUIMULA, With a breadth from the Gulf of Honduras to the Paci of about 150 miles. Chiquinquirá, the largest town in the depart ment of Boyaca, Colombia, near the Suarez, 30 s W. of Tunja, was an Indian place of pilgrima before the conquest; and the Spaniards havi found here a miraculous image of the Virgin, the church where this is preserved is now visited some 60,000 pilgrims annually. Pop. 18,000. Chiquitos, or NAQUINONEIS ('men), an Indir stem of Bolivia, dwelling between the Parag a and the Madeira. Bronze-coloured and well bu with large, round heads, low foreheads, and s.. bright eyes, they are cheerful, hospitable, 13 of music and dancing, but of a low morality and live (about 20,000 in all) in villages former.y founded by the Jesuits. Chira'ta, or CHIRETTA (Ophelia Chirata), ar officinal plant belonging to the order Gentiane It is a native of the mountains of the north of Ina The whole plant is intensely bitter, and has been long used in its native country as a tonic a stomachic, as also by European practitioners 1 India as a febrifuge. Chiriquí, an administrative division of the department of Panama, Colombia, adjoining Costa Rica. Area, 6500 sq. m.; pop. 43,000. It is wri wooded, and has rich pasturage, especially on the Atlantic coast, where the climate is very moist The Cordilleras that occupy the interior reach the highest point in the volcano of Chiriqui (112 feet). Chief town, David.-On the north coast is a spacious lagoon of the same name, with a depth of water for the largest ships, which receives an unimportant Rio Chiriquí. Chiromancy. See PALMISTRY. Chi'ron, or CHEIRON, the most famous of the Centaurs (q.v.), son of Cronos and Philyra, and husband of Nais or Chariclo. He lived on Mourt Pelion, and was famous for his skill in healing. CHIROPTERA hunting, music, and prophecy. The great Achilles and other heroes were his pupils. He died by being ar dentally wounded by one of the poisoned arrows of his friend Hercules. Chiroptera. See BAT. Chiru, or PANTHALOPS (Antilope hodgsoni), a species of antelope, inhabiting the pine-forests and elevated open plains of Tibet, in regions bordering on the snow-line. It is much larger than the chamois, being about five feet in length, and three feet high at the shoulder. The colour is reddish fawn with some black. The chiru lives in great herds, and seems to exceed almost all the other gregarious ruminants in watchfulness against the approach of danger. They are said often to lie concealed in holes which they make for themselves Among the stones. Chislehurst, a village in Kent, 11 miles SE. of London. Sir Nicholas Bacon was a native. Camden Park estate (now built over) was the residence of Camden the antiquary. Napoleon III. died at Canden Place in 1873; his remains along with the of the Prince Imperial were removed to Farnborough in January 1888. There are an Orphanage and a Governesses Benevolent Institution here. Chiswick, a suburban parish of Middlesex, on the north bank of the Thames, 7 miles W. by S. of St Pauls. Here are some charming old river-side houses (one of them William Morris's home); here too are extensive market-gardens to supply London, and the gardens of the Horticultural Society. In the churchyard are Hogarth's grave And Foscolo's cenotaph; and at the Duke of Devonshires beautiful villa, Chiswick House, died Fox and Canning. Pop. (1861) 6505; (1881) 15,975. See an article in Harper's for August 1888. Chitaldrúg, the chief town of Chitaldrúg district, Mysore, India, 126 miles NW. of Banga ore, with manufactures of coarse blankets and cotton cloth. The military cantonments have been abandoned on account of their unhealthiness. Pop. 1881 4271.-The district is the least populous in the Mysore State, in which it is distinguished for 1ts low rainfall (10 to 25 inches) and arid, stony Area, 4871 sq. m. Pop. (1871) 531,360; 11 376,310-the decrease being due to the tan.ine of 1876-78. It Chitin, the substance which forms most of the hard parts of jointed-footed animals (arthropods), ..has crustaceans, insects, and spiders. ".. discovered by Odier in 1823, but regarded meously as free from nitrogen; rediscovered vy Lassaigne in 1843; and since then recog sed in all the four chief classes of arthropods and in some other types. Huxley has given an account of its formation in the crayfish. Chitin has been demonstrated in many arthropods, also in the pen of cuttle-fishes (Mollusca), and in the stalk and shell of Lingula anatina, a brachiopod. Its presence is at least probable in many other cases. In arthropods it is not confined to forming the firm and often very hard skeleton, but occurs internally in supporting Pates, &c. among the tissues. In the crayfish it seems even to form the sheath of the strong sentral nerves. In arthropods the greater portion of the gut is formed as an intucking of the outer skin rectoderm) from in front and behind, and the alting portions known as fore- and hind gut are lined by this chitin, which frequently exhibit, special internal thickenings for food-grinding pure. The chitinous coating or cuticle is formed iren underlying skin cells. In some cases the padermic cells probably sweat it off after the manner of other secretions; but Huxley has shown in regard to the crayfish that the superficial portion of the cells undergoes a chitinous modification, being literally turned into chitin. The outer coat of crustacea is hardened by the addition of calcium carbonate or phosphate, especially the former; such calcareous hardening is very rare in beetle cuticles. insects, but copper has been demonstrated in some It Chitin is an amorphous white substance. contains nitrogen, but is free from sulphur. Its resistance to acids and alkalies is very great; it is unaffected by digestive ferments, by water, hot or cold, by alcohol or ether. It may be dissolved by strong mineral acids (hydrochloric or sulphuric), and prepared from the cleaned exoskeleton of a lobster, or better still from the pen of a squid. Chemically it is regarded as a derivative of carbohydrates, and may be split up into sugar and glycosamin. According to Ledderhose, its formula is CHNO10; according to Sundwik, C60H100039 + nH2O. See Krukenberg, Vergleichend-physiologische Vorträge (1886). Chiton, a genus of marine molluscs, type of an important sub-class which may be regarded as introductory to gasteropods. Unlike the lop-sided snails, the chitons are bilaterally symmetrical. The head is at the anterior end, the anus posterior; the 'foot' occupies the whole of the ventral surface; the heart, the gills, the excretory tubes, the genital ducts, all exhibit the same symmetry. This marked contrast to the gasteropods proper is further supported by the disposition of the two important nerve cords (pedal and visceral) which run parallel to one another along the body. In some forms there are numerous eyes, which occur, however, not on the head, but on the body. Another striking feature is the presence of a series of eight shellplates along the back. On these and other grounds the chitons are separated from gasteropods proper, and established as a separate order, on which the name Polyplacophora, alluding to the multiple shell-plates, has been bestowed. Nor is the order a small one. Of the genus Chiton alone over 400 species have been recorded, and other smaller genera are also distinguished. The British species are small; those from warmer climates sometimes measure 3 to 4 inches in length. They are undoubtedly representatives of a primitive type, and include numerous fossil forms from the Silurian onwards. They are not, however, the simplest gasteropods, for a few other forms, known it is true with less fullness, exhibit the same essential features in even simpler expression. These are (a) the Neomeniæ, including the genera Neomenia and Proneomenia, and (6) the single genus Chatoderma. The systematic import of these last forms has been emphasised by Professor Hubrecht (Quart. Jour. Micr. S. 1882). Along with the chitons they |