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Among the more important articles in this Volume are the following:

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CHILL....

R. F. GREEN, Ed. Brit. Chess Magazine.
GEORGE FORRESTER.

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J. SAMSON (South American Journal). CROMWELL, OLIVER..... Professor GOLDWIN SMITH.

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The Publishers beg to tender their thanks for suggestions or corrections on the following articles: To Lord KINGSBURGH, on 'Catholic and Apostolic Church;' to Canon Westcott and Rev. Charles Bigg, D.D., on *Clement; ' to Sir FREDERICK POLLOCK, on Clifford; to His Excellency General A. B. CUERVO, on Colombia;' to Sir EDWARD WALTER, on Commissionaires; to JACOR HOLYOAKE, Esq., on 'Co-operation;' to the Head-Masters of the Charterhouse and Christ's Hospital; to EDMUND GOSSE, Esq., on 'Denmark (Literature);' and to the Editor of the Field, on 'Derby Day.'

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atarrh (Gr. katarreo, I flow | down'), a disease of great frequency in temperate latitudes, especially in changeable moist climates in the winter season. From its well-known connection with sudden falls of temperature, and other epidemic or atmospheric causes (see INFLU ENZA), as also from the chill often experienced at the commencement of the disease, it is popularly called a cold-a term, however, perhaps somewhat less definite in its meaning than catarrh, which word is usually restricted to the case of a cold affecting the chest, and attended with discharge of mucus by coughing. A cold in the head' is termed, in strict scientific language, Coryza; we shall, how ever, keep both forms in view in the present article. Catarrh, or cold, commonly begins with a feeling of chilliness, which may or may not be attribut able to external causes. Sometimes this is absent, there being only a sense of languor and indisposition; not unfrequently there is no sensation of an unusual kind, until a stuffing is experienced in the nostrils, or severe headache, or hoarseness with cough, or oppression of the breathing. It most commonly attacks the nostrils first, and afterwards the air-passages leading to the chest. But the mucous membranes of the eyes and mouth are often affected, as well as those of the nose, throat, and lungs; and the disease may begin in any of these situations, and either spread to them all or leave one or more unaffected. When it habitually attacks the chest, without running through its ordinary course as indicated above, there is often some special cause of delicacy in the lungs, or some constitutional tendency towards Consumption (q.v.). The affected mucous membrane is at first abnormally red and swollen, and its secretion diminished. But it soon begins to pour out a discharge, at first watery, but afterwards glairy and of a yellowish colour, or purulent. The early stages of the disease are attended by considerable

irritation of the surfaces affected, and probably no one of the little miseries of life is more prostrating and discouraging for the time than a bad cold in the head. The tendency of catarrh to attack the chest, and thus to pass into Bronchitis (q.v.) or Pneumonia (q.v.), or to lay the foundation of tubercular disease, constitutes almost its only danger.

The treatment of a cold is commonly a simple matter, so far as the particular attack is concerned. But so many colds disappear in a little time without any special treatment that few persons, unless in delicate health, are willing to subject themselves to the confinement which is necessary to give any form of treatment a chance of success. In the earliest stage a warm hip or foot bath, and a large opiate (Dover's powder especially) at bedtime, if followed by confinement to the house, and, in severe cases, to bed or to the sofa for a day or two, light farinaceous diet, and, if the stomach and bowels are at all loaded, a dose or two of some gentle laxative, will generally cut short the disease. In some persons it yields readily and quickly to spirit of camphor, five drops on a lump of sugar every half-hour; but in others no effect is produced. Free bathing of the nose with hot water may relieve the irritability and dis. charge. In most cases frequent sipping of warm soothing drinks-gruel, barley-water, black-currant tea, &c.-is grateful to the patient; sometimes ice gives more relief. Some persons cure their colds by entire abstinence from food, and as much as possible from drink; others by spirit of mindererus and paregorie; some even profess to carry out the popular maxim, 'stuff a cold, and starve a fever,' and maintain that a good dinner and a tumbler of whisky or brandy toddy are the best specifics. That colds get well under all these methods need not be denied; but multiplied experience has shown that stuffing a cold at its commencement is by no means to be commended. In the later stages, however, a more liberal diet than at first, and in some cases even a moderate allowance of

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stimulants, affords considerable relief from the feeling of depression that remains for a time on the subsidence of a catarrh. The tendency to this disease, when habitual, and when not dependent on any form of constitutional disorder requiring special means for its cure, is best met by the daily use of the cold bath, with frequent exercise in the open air, and proper ventilation of the sleepingapartment; also by friction of the skin, and by clothing which, without being oppressive, is comfortably warm. Exposure to draughts or sudden chills when the surface is perspiring is to be avoided; but a close confined air habitually breathed in a workshop or bedroom is a fruitful predisposing cause of the disease.

Catarrh or catarrhal inflammation is also used in modern pathology of an inflammation with the characters above described in any mucous mem brane whatever; we have, for example, catarrh

of the stomach, intestines, bladder, &c.

Catarrhini, Old-World monkeys, with a narrow partition between the nostrils, with a dental formula 3, and including two distinct sets of forms, (a) the lower dog-like' apes (Cynomorpha), and (b) the higher man-like' forms (Anthropomorpha). See APE, ANTHROPOID APE, MONKEY.

Catawba, a name of wines, both still and sparkling, produced in various parts of the United States from the Catawba grape, the fruit of a variety of the Vitis Labrusca, a North American and Asiatic species, from which have been derived

most of the cultivated North American varieties of the vine. It is often said that it was 'first found growing on the banks of the Catawba River' (in North and South Carolina); but it is on record that it was named by Major Adlum, who found it growing wild near Washington, D.C., about 1825. Catawba wines are of various grades, the best being of very decided value. The vine is extremely prolific, the fruit being large, of a deep coppery red, and very sweet. The Catawba grape does best on southern slopes, and on limestone soils. Its slight musky aroma pervades the wines made from it, and causes some connoisseurs to

reject all but the very choicest of the vintage from the catalogue of first-class wines.

Cat-bird (Turdus or Galeoscoptes carolinensis), an American thrush, of the same group as the mocking-bird, which it resembles in its vocal powers. Its name refers to its mew-like cry when disturbed. It feeds on many kinds of fruit and berries, also on worms and insects; builds a large nest of dry twigs, weeds, &c., without any attempt at concealment, in a bush or tree, often in the immediate vicinity of human habitations, and shows extraordinary boldness in the defence of its young. It is a bird of passage, making its way northward in spring through Georgia and Carolina as far as Massachusetts. In winter it migrates southwards, and strayed specimens have been seen as great rarities on the continental coast of the North Sea.

Catch, a species of musical composition peculiar to England, written generally in three or four parts, and in the canon form. It was originally synonymous with the Round (q.v.), but the name has been appropriated to a species of it to which an absurd or humorous effect is given by the successive entries of the parts, interrupting or distorting the sense of the words into a new and unexpected meaning. They abounded in the Restoration period, when, as may be surmised, they often had a more than questionable coarse. ness. Hayes, Webbe, and Callcott, towards the end of last century, were fertile composers in this form. The 'Catch Club' was founded in 1761.

CATECHISM

Catchfly, the name of the genus Silene, of which many species produce a sticky secretion on the calyx, the joints of the stem, &c., which prevents the access of ants and other creeping insects to the honey, so preserving it for the bees or other flying insects by which alone cross fertilisation is effected. Other Caryophyllaceæ, notably Lychnis Viscaria, possess the same means of defence. The Nottingham Catchfly is Silene nutans. The unrelated Dionaea muscipula is also sometimes called the Carolina Catchfly. See DIONÆA.

Catchpoll, a sheriff's officer or bailiff, who had power to arrest. From catch and poll, 'the head; ' not as is suggested by the spelling catchpole from pole; though in various places a long pole was in use for catching or holding criminals by the neck, having at the end of it an iron collar with a V-shaped opening, occasionally armed with spikes

on the inside.

Cateau, LE, or CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, a town in the French department of Nord, on the Selle, 14 miles ESE. of Cambrai. Pop. (1886) 9686. Here in 1559 the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis was concluded between Henry II. of France and Philip II. of Spain.

Catechism, any compendious system of teaching drawn up in the form of question and answer. It is derived, through low Latin, from a Greek word katecheō, which means to resound, or sound into one's ears; to instruct by word of mouth. Christianity were hence called Catechumens (q.v.). Persons undergoing instruction in the principles of

Catechisms have long formed one of the principal means employed for popular instruction in the truths and duties of the Christian religion. The composition of the first catechisms was, in all probability, suggested by the ordinary oral instruction of catechumens, and was intended for the help both of teachers and pupils. It appears to have been in the 8th and 9th centuries that the first regular catechisms were compiled, of which that by Kero, a monk of St Gall, that of Notker Labeo of St Gall, and that ascribed to Otfried of Weissenburg in Alsace, are among the most noted. chiefly among the opponents of the hierarchy, as At later periods the use of catechisms prevailed among the Waldenses, the Albigenses, the Wyclifites, and, above all, among the Bohemian Brethren. The term catechism appears to have been first employed in its present sense among the latter. At an early period in the history of the Reformation the Reformers began to avail themselves of this method of popular instruction, and their catechisms became important instruments in that great religi ous movement. After Luther published in 1520 his primer of religion, entitled A Short Form of the Ten Commandments, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer, several catechisms were prepared by leading Protestant theologians, that of Brenz (1527-28) being the most notable. In 1525 Justus Jonas and John Agricola had been intrusted with the preparation of a catechism, and Luther's visitation of the Saxon churches in 1528 led to his preparing his Larger and Smaller Catechisms (1529), which found a place among the standards of the Lutheran churches. The Larger he meant to be for teachers, the Smaller for the people. The latter has been constantly reprinted, and is very extensively used at the present day. A number of catechisms were published also by the theologians of the Reformed churches. The most noteworthy are the Geneva and Heidelberg catechisms, and those of Ecolampadius (Basel, 1526), Leo Judæ (Zurich, 1534), and Bullinger (Zurich, 1555). The Geneva catechisms, Larger and Smaller, were the work of Calvin. The latter was published in French in 1736 (Lat. ed. 1538)

former

CATECHISM

appeared in French in 1541 or 1542 (Lat. ed. 1545), was speedily translated into various languages, and became an acknowledged standard of the Reformed churches, not only in Switzerland but in the Low | Countries, in France, and in Hungary. The First Book of Discipline of the Scottish Church (1560) directs that the children be taught this catechism -which catechism is the most perfect that ever yet was used in the kirk'-every Sonday' after noon in the presence of the people. The Church of Geneva has set aside the authority of Calvin's cate chisms. The Heidelberg or Palatinate Catechism is of greater importance, however, than any other as a standard of the Swiss Reformed churches. It was compiled by the Heidelberg theologians, Caspar Olevianus and Zacharias Ursinus, at the request of the Elector Frederic III. of the Palatinate; it was published in 1563, was approved by several synods, and recognised as a symbolical book by the Synod of Dort in 1619, and has been translated into all the languages of Europe. It is the standard of the Dutch and German Reformed churches of America. A tercentenary edition of this catechism was published in German, Latin, and English at New York in 1863.-King James said at the Hampton Court Conference that in Scotland every one who was the son of a good man' thought himself competent to write a catechism. The catechisms of the Scottish Reformation must have been numerous. The most popular, until it was superseded by the Westminster Catechism, was John Craig's Smaller Catechism (Edin. 1591; edited by T. G Law, 1883).

-The doctrines of the Socinians are embodied in the greater and smaller Racovian Catechisms (Polish ed. Racow, 1605; Latin ed. 1609). Besides a catechism of 1660, in the form of a conversation between father and son, said to have been written by George Fox, the Quakers have that of Robert Barclay (1673), in which the answers are in the language of the Bible, the distinctive peculiarities of the sect being involved in the questions.

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The catechism called the Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern Church, was prepared about 1640 by Peter Mogilas, metropolitan of Kief, and received symbolical authority from a synod at Jerusalem in 1672. It is often called the Larger Russian Catechism, to distinguish it from the Smaller Catechism prepared by order of Peter the Great in 1723. These were practically superseded by the catechisms of Platon, metropolitan of Moscow (first published in 1762), and of Philaret, also metropolitan of Moscow, which has since 1839 been in general use in the schools and churches of Russia. -Besides these cate chisms, which have a historic interest, or are of importance from their symbolical character, there have appeared at all periods, since the Reforma. tion, many others, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, some doctrinal, some controversial, some devoted to particular subjects, as the sacraments, or to particular purposes, as the preparation of candidates for admission to the Lord's Supper, some adapted to the mental capacity of very young children, &c. The opinion, however, has become prevalent, that doctrinal abstracts are not the best form in which religion can be presented to the young, and the use of catechisms has accordingly been in some measure relinquished in favour of other methods of instruction.

The catechism of the Church of England with which we are most familiar is the smaller one published in the Book of Common Prayer. It is in two parts: the first contains and explains the Baptismal Covenant, the Creed, the Ten Com mandments, and the Lord's Praver; the second explains the two sacraments, Baptism and the Lord's Supper. It is not known with absolute certainty who was the author of the first part; probably Cranmer and Ridley had the principal hand in framing the questions and answers, was originally put forth in the reign of Edward VI., and condemned as heretical in the reign of Mary, and underwent several modifications from 1549 to 1661. It must not be confounded with Cranmer's Catechism (1548), which was a larger work, differ

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In the Church of Rome there were several catechisms published in Germany and elsewhere before the Tridentine settlement of doctrine. A Scottish catechism, known as Archbishop Hamil-ently arranged, and probably translated chiefly from ton's, was issued by authority of a provincial council in 1552, and was ordered to be read in church by the parish priests. But in 1563 the Council of Trent in its twenty fourth session determined to compose and prescribe for the whole church an authorised form of catechism, which the bishops were to have translated into the vulgar tongue, and expounded to the people by the curates. The work was, however, not carried through by the council itself, and Pius IV. intrusted its completion to a commission of four theologians. Eminent scholars were also appointed to perfect its latinity, and when finished in 1564 it was once again submitted to a new commission under Cardinal Sirletus. It finally appeared in 1566 under the title Catechismus Romanus ex decreto, Concilii Tridentini Pii V. Pontinax jussa editus, In form it is not catechetical, and it is addressed, not to the people, but to the curates as a guide to them in their instructions. It possesses very high authority, but is ill adapted for popular use. For lay teaching it has fallen into désuetude, and has been superseded by various catechisms of more private origin. The most popular of these were prepared by the Jesuit Peter Canisius. His larger work, entitled Summa Doctrine et Institutionis Christiana, was published in 1554, and the shorter (1556) reached more than 400 editions, and was used in the schools of all countries. In the present day, as a general rule, each diocese possesses a catechism of its own approved by the bishop. In England the short Penny Catechism' is used by authority of all the bishops in concert.

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the Latin catechism of Justus Jonas. This first part
of the church catechism was formerly spoken of as
the Shorter Catechism. There was a larger church
catechism compiled also in the reign of Edward
VI. by Poynet, Bishop of Winchester, and pub
lished, together with the 42 Articles, in 1553, and it
corresponds in some degree with the smaller work
above described. It was afterwards revised and
enlarged by Dean Nowell, and published in 1570;
and, though never officially promulgated by the
church, it has some authority from having been
approved by the lower house of Convocation.
the Hampton Court Conference (1604), the Shorter
Catechism was considered too short, and Nowell's
larger one too long for novices to learn by heart;'
accordingly, at James I.'s suggestion, an addition
was made to the former of that explanation of the
two sacraments which now forms the second part of
the church catechism. This is attributed to Dean
Overall. The whole is a work much esteemed by
all sections of the church as remarkable for its
simplicity, truth, and catholicity. It, however,
states sacramental doctrine in a way that is not
very acceptable to the extreme Low Church party.
Hence, the Prayer-book put forth by the Church
of Ireland, while leaving the catechism otherwise
untouched, ingeniously interpolates an additional
question and answer (based on Article XXVIII.),
which, in the opinion of many, tends to modify the
ideas suggested by the catechism concerning Holy
Communion. Modifications occur, too, in the
Catechism of the American Episcopal Church.
The rubrics in the Common Prayer book enjoin

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