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cattle, or with hides and offal which have been exposed to the contagion; and is hitherto unknown in America, Australia, and New Zealand. It is essentially a disease of the bovine family (ox, aurochs, and zebu), but may be communicated to the sheep, goat, deer, caniel, giraffe, antelope, gazelle, and even the peccary.

Records of fatal plagues in cattle have been handed down from very early dates, but the descriptions are so meagre that it is possible only to surmise their nature. It is probable that one of the plagues of Egypt was a form of anthrax, but in the reign of Nero (69 A.D.) Columella describes a disease which resembles cattle-plague. He says: The fever is present when tears are trickling down the face, when the head is carried low and heavily, and the eyes are closed; when the saliva flows from the mouth, when the respiration is shorter than in health, and seemingly embarrassed or sometimes accompanied by groaning.' About 400 A.D. Vegetius Renatus describes, under the term Malleus, a disease which might have been cattle-plague. In 809-10 A.D., during the wars of Charlemagne, occurred a great outbreak of cattle plague, which spread over nearly the whole of Europe, and particularly Britain. In 1348-49 a plague broke out amongst the cattle in England, just after the black death had destroyed thousands of human beings; it seems to have been similar to cattle-plague. Even in those days the stampingout system was understood, as the diseased cattle were slaughtered, and infected herds, and the herdsmen attending them, were kept from coming into contact with sound animals.

In 1480 another outbreak occurred which committed great devastation. It cannot be stated positively that these outbreaks were cattle-plague, as the symptoms have not been clearly handed down, but there is evidence to prove that outbreaks occurring in 1715, in 1745, and which continued until 1757, were those of the veritable plague. That of 1745 was brought from Holland either by two white calves, or by a parcel of distempered hides brought from Zealand. The disease broke out near London, continued for twelve years, and was only suppressed by most vigorous measures. It again made its appearance in 1865, and was introduced by 331 cattle shipped at Revel, and landed at Hull. Amongst these were 13 Russian cattle, the remainder of 46 which had been brought from St Petersburg and its neighbourhood. The cargo arrived on 29th May, and a lot of 146 were disposed of at Hull on the 30th. The remaining 175 were sent to London. Amongst them were 330 sheep which were sold at Hull to the butchers and killed, and all the 175 cattle except 20 were sold for killing, but the remaining 20 were sent to Gosport. From this source the disease spread rapidly, and by the end of July it appeared in Aberdeenshire, brought by 4 calves sent to Huntly from the south. By the beginning of November the plague was present in 30 counties in England, 17 in Scotland, and 1 in Wales; and on December 30 the disease had appeared on 7443 farms or in cattle-sheds in England, 2065 in Scotland, and 245 in Wales; total-9753 centres of

infection. The total number of cattle on farms, in sheds, or other places where the disease had been officially reported to exist, was-England, 110,647; Scotland, 44,527; Wales, 4536; total, 159,710. And the number of healthy animals in contact and slaughtered were-England, 10,636; Scotland, 6578; Wales, 152; total, 17,366. The number attacked were-England, 48,964; Scotland, 22,298; Wales, 2287; total, 73,549. Out of this number 7045 recovered, 41,491 died, 13,931 were killed, and 11,082 remained diseased at this date. The plague continued to spread and to commit great havoc,

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CATULLUS

until an Order in Council was issued making it compulsory to slaughter and bury all diseased cattle, as well as those which had been in contact with them. The beneficial effect of this order was soon made apparent, as the disease gradually diminished and eventually died out.

Had the restrictions upon cattle traffic been removed, there would have been another visitation in 1872, for in July of that year, animals affected with the disease were sent to Deptford, Hull, and Leith, but owing to its swift recognition, were not allowed to land in Scotland. From Hull, however, it spread to Bridlington, Pocklington, and two other parishes in the East Riding of Yorkshire, but through the activity of the authorities was prevented from spreading further.

Sheep do not readily take the disease when kept in fields with affected cattle, but if kept together in close sheds, they take the disease in a short time.

Symptoms.-The virus absorbed into the blood gives rise to elevation of temperature (fever), which precedes all other symptoms, and occurs in from 36 to 48 hours after an animal has been inoculated. It will be thus seen that the period of latency-incubation-is very short. Two days after this elevation of temperature, the mucous membrane of the mouth, as well as that of the vagina in the cow, assumes a salmon colour, and is covered with an eruption. Even at this time the pulse is but little affected, but on the fourth day from the first rise of temperature there are marked signs of illness; the constitution is thoroughly invaded, and now ensue the drooping head, hanging ears, distressed look, with rigors and twitching of the muscles, failing pulse, oppressed breathing, diarrhoea, fetid breath, discharge from the eyes, nose, and mouth, and constant moan so characteristic of this dreadful malady; death usually occurs on the seventh day from the first perceptible elevation of temperature, but the third or fourth after the illness is apparent to ordinary observers.

The Virus.-It is now supposed that the disease is due to micrococci found by Klebs in 1872, and by Semmer in 1874, in the lymphatic glands and blood. The micrococci, which will grow rapidly in beef-broth and other special preparations, form zooglea and chains; calves inoculated with them die from the plague in seven days. By repeated cultivations the virus loses its potency; inoculated into sheep it secures their immunity from the disease.

No medicinal treatment has as yet been found beneficial in this disease. Almost every remedy was tried in 1865, and although there were recoveries, no one attributed these to any remedies. The disease is much milder in cattle indigenous to those countries where it has its home and origin, and there the mortality is not great; but this mild type propagates the disease in its most virulent form when introduced amongst cattle of other countries.

Cattolica, a town of Sicily, with sulphurworks, 14 miles NW. of Girgenti. Pop. 6591.

Catullus, GAIUS VALERIUS, the greatest lyric poet of ancient Italy, and one of the greatest poets of all ages, was born at Verona either in 87 or, more probably, in 84 B.C. Few of the incidents in his life are known to us, and the dates assigned to these are in most cases only conjectural. He appears to have belonged to the equestrian order, and his years were spent mainly at Rome, where he settled about 62 B.C., and at his villas, to which he was fond of retiring, at Tibur and Sirmio. He began to write verses when a boy of sixteen or seventeen. When my primrose youth was in its

CATULLUS

peasant spring,' he says, 'I played enough at in Rome he mingled with the best society, becoming intimate with the two Ciceros, the Metelli, Hortensius, and probably with Lueretius. And in Rome he met the lady whom, aster the name of Lesbia, he has sung in verses which stand at the head of the lyric poetry of passion. It is almost certain that the Lesbia of atuans was none other than Clodia, the sister of Cicero's enemy, Publius Clodius Pulcher. One of the most beautiful and accomplished women of her time, she inspired Catullus with a passionate love of which the changing phases are mirrored in a wonderful cycle of poems. There is first a time of rapturous joy; then come doubts, quarrels, and reconciliations, and in the end betrayal and depur. The final rupture seems to have happened in 57 B. C., and in that year Catullus accompanied the proprætor Gaius Memmius to his province of Bevnia. He returned to Rome disappointed in has hopes of enriching himself, and entered impetuously into the contest which was then being

waged between the senatorian and the democratic partime Like Cicero and most of the men of etters of his day, he espoused the cause of the sate. A fiery, unscrupulous partisan, he assailed has enemies with equal scurrility and wit, and directed one of his coarsest lampoons at the head of Julius Cæsar. His closing years were darkened by the loss of a favourite brother, on whose tomb in the Troad, which he visited when returning from Bathynia, he wrote one of the most exquisite at all poems that breathe regret for the dead. He was himself cut off in early life, for, though the exact date of his death can only be conjectured, in all probability he did not survive the year The extant works of Catullus comprise 116 pesces, many of which are extremely brief, while the longest of them contains only some 400 lines. There is considerable variety, however, in this mewhat slender body of poetry. There are graceful, playful verses of society, and there are verses, struck out in the heat of party warfare, in which satiric wit sparkles through fescennine railery. There are elaborate descriptive and mythological pieces, such as the Coma Berenices and the stately and richly-coloured Peleus and Thetas, which appear to have been translated or adapted from the Greek. There is the Atys, a strange poem, unlike any other work of a Latin writer in its wild imaginative power and in the Ehrent sound and sweep of its galliambic verse. Af there is the crowning series of love-poems, in wash the incarnation of burning passion in exquite language, the mastery of verbal music, are carried to what is seemingly the highest attainabie point of perfection. In these Lesbia pens there is no sign of the laborious art which ptured the mosaic-work of the Horatian odes. Tey seem to have flowed forth-thought, feeling, phrase, and cadence combined in a perfect whole -at a single creative impulse. Their author's mastery of the Latin tongue was unerring and anwounded. In his works it seems endowed with the elastic and radiant strength of the Greek.

He ved all it had of energy, sonority, and sweet, of monumental dignity and laughing grace. He moulded it into lines which neither Lucretius we Virgil has surpassed for majesty of rhythm; he Wote it into lyrics which for lightness of move. Bent and caressing sweetness of cadence are watched in all the fields of Latin verse. For breadth of vision, fertility of thought, insight into kanan character, we must turn to other writers, *kan (atulins. For tire and musie and unlaboured

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The text of the works of Catullus, after having been lost for more than three hundred years, was discovered in the 14th century at Verona. The original manuscript was again lost, and until lately only one copy of it, which was preserved at St Germains, and is now in Paris, was believed to be in existence. A manuscript in the Bodleian Library, however, has been discovered by Dr Bährens to be a sister copy of the St Germains manuscript. A commentary on Catullus was issued by Doering in 1788-92. The best editions are those of Mr Robinson Ellis (1866-67), and Bähren's (Leip. 1876-85 ). Among the English verse translations may be mentioned those of Martin (1861), Cranstoun (1867), and Ellis (1867, and 1871). See R. Ellis's edition, mentioned above, and its admirable commentary (1876); Munro's Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus (1878); and Sellar's Roman Poets of the Republic (new ed. 1881).

Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 30 miles Caub, a town in the Prussian province of HesseWNW. of Wiesbaden by rail. Here Blücher crossed the Rhine with his army, January 1, 1814; and here, too, till 1866, toll was levied by the Duke of Nassau-the only ruler who kept up this feudal privilege-from vessels navigating the Rhine. Caub has underground slate-quarries; and opposite, on an island in the river, where Louis le Debonnaire died in 840, is a castle called the Pfalz, built in 1326, which is said to have been resorted to for safety by the Countesses Palatine during childbed. In 1876 and 1879 Caub was the scene of two serious landslips. Pop. 2179.

which, after a northerly course of 600 miles, falls into the Magdalena. Its valley is one of the richest and most populous districts of the continent, and it gives name to the largest of the Colombian states, traversed by the Andean coast-range, and extending along the Pacific from Panama to Ecuador. Area, 260,000 sq. m.; pop. (1887) stated at 435,690. It is rich in minerals, and possesses the most productive platinum mine in America. Capital, Popayán.

Cauca, a river of Colombia, in South America,

Caucasus and the Caucasians. The great mountain-range of the Caucasus forms the backbone of a well-marked geographical region, nearly corresponding with the Russian governor-generalship or lieutenancy of Caucasia. The natural and administrative northern limit is the great Manitch depression, extending from the Sea of Azov to the Caspian, and including the basins of the Kuban and Terek rivers. The southern natural limit is along the basins of the Rion and Kur rivers. The Russian province comprises all the Russian territory to the Turkish and Persian frontiers, including also part of the Armenian highlands and the mountain masses adjoining them, now known by the infelicitous name of Little Caucasus, south of the Rion and Kur rivers. Little or Anti-Caucasus is connected with Caucasus proper by the narrow Mesk ridge crossing the Rion-Kur Valley between the headwaters of those streams. The Sea of Azov and the Caspian seem at one time to have been connected by the Manitch depression; south of which extend vast steppes of flat treeless landfertile, but with little or no water. South of the steppe to the northern spurs of the mountains is luxuriant park land covered with magnificent grasses, and also quite level. Beyond this rise the mountains in successive terraces. On the south side, towards the Rion and Kur, the mountain face is much steeper and more sudden.

The Caucasus occupies the isthmus between the Security of phrase he has no superior among the Black Sea and the Caspian, its general direction ne poets of all time.

being from west-north-west to east-south-east.

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From the peninsula of Taman on the Black Sea, to the peninsula of Apsheron on the Caspian, it has a length of about 750 miles. The breadth, including the secondary ranges and spurs, is about 150 miles, but that of the higher Caucasus does not exceed 70 miles. This range is sometimes treated as part of the boundary line between Europe and Asia, but the region is really Asiatic in character (see ASIA). The higher and central part of the range is formed of parallel chains, not separated by deep and wide valleys, but remarkably connected by elevated plateaus, which are traversed by narrow fissures of extreme depth. The highest peaks are in the most central ridge or chain, at least six of them well over 16,000 feet, much exceeding the highest Alps. | Mount Elburz attains an elevation of 18,000 feet above the sea; Kazbek reaches a height of more than 16,500 feet; and between these come Koshtantau and Dikh-tau. Here the line of perpetual snow is between 10,000 and 11,000 feet high; but the whole amount of perpetual snow is not great, nor are the glaciers very large or numerous. For more than 100 miles' length of the main ridge there are no passes lower than 10,000 feet. The central chain, in its highest part at least, is granitic or even pure granite. On either side of the granitic axis are metamorphic rocks, such as mica-schists and tale-schists; and beyond these, clay-slates and schists. The secondary parallel chains on both sides of the central ridge are of limestone. The spurs and outlying mountains or hills are of less extent and importance than those of almost any other mountain-range of similar magnitude, subsiding as they do until they are only about 200 feet high along the shores of the Black Sea. Some parts are entirely destitute of wood, but other parts are very densely wooded, and the secondary ranges near the Black Sea exhibit most magnificent forests of oak, beech, ash, maple, and walnut; grain is cultivated in some parts to a height of 8000 feet, while in the lower valleys rice, tobacco, cotton, indigo, &c. are produced. As might be expected from the geographical situation of the Caucasus, the climate, though it is generally healthy, is very different on the northern and southern sides, the vine growing wild in great abundance on the south, which is not the case on the north. The south declivity of the mountains towards Georgia presents much exceedingly beautiful and romantic scenery.

There are no active volcanoes in Mount Caucasus, but every evidence of volcanic action. Elburz and Kazbek are both of volcanic origin. There are hot springs and mud volcanoes at each end of the range, and there are also famous petroleum wells in the peninsula of Apsheron (see BAKU). Mineral springs also occur in many places, notably at Vladikavkaz. The bison, or aurochs, is found in the mountains; bears, wolves, and jackals are among the carnivorous animals. Lead, iron, sulphur, coal, and copper are found.

The waters of the Caucasus flow into four principal rivers-the Kuban and the Rion or Faz (the Phasis of the ancients), which flow into the Black Sea; and the Terek and the Kur, which flow into the Caspian. Kuban and Terek are north, Rion and Kur or Kura south of the mountains. The Russians have with great labour carried a military road through a valley somewhat wider than most of the Caucasian valleys. This is the tremendous fissure or ravine of the Dariel gorge about halfway from the Black Sea to the Caspian. The road passes over a height of about 8000 feet, and is protected by many forts. The only other road is by the Pass of Derbend, near the Caspian Sea. There is a railway from Baku by Tiflis to Poti and Batoum; Vladikavkaz is the terminus of the railway from the north.

ČAUCASIAN was the name adopted by Blumen

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bach (q.v.) for one of his main ethnological divisions of mankind; and as the Georgian skull he had was the finest in his collection, the Caucasian was taken as the finest type of the Indo-European stock. Subsequent ethnologists have, mainly on philological grounds, broken up the Caucasian variety of Blumenbach into two well-marked philological groups, the Aryan (q.v.) and the Semitic peoples (q.v.). The name Caucasian was clearly a misnomer when it suggested affinity in blood or in language between the very various races of the Caucasus, classified below, and Aryans or Semites; and Prichard and others proposed actually to connect most of the Caucasus peoples with the Mongolian races of Asia. Later anthropologists, finding the word convenient, use Caucasian or Caucasic for the Fair type of man as opposed to the Mongolic or Yellow type. But they distinctly repudiate any suggestion of community of race or of language between the peoples so named; and desire to indicate a physical fact and an anthropological type. See ETHNOLOGY; also

PHILOLOGY.

The Caucasus has been called the Mountain of Languages from the multiplicity of tongues spoken in this narrow area-tongues many of them totally distinct from one another, and, with one exception, apparently unconnected with the languages of any other part of the globe, or race of men; though both Aryan and Turkoman affinities have been alleged for Georgian, and Sayce has suggested that the ancient Hittites (q.v.), whose empire in Asia Minor rivalled that of the Assyrians, were of the same stock. There are certain well-marked groups amongst them, within which manifest affinity prevails. (1) The Southern division or Kartveli stock comprises the Georgians or Grusians, mainly in the upper and middle basin of the Kur; the Imeritians, west of the watershed between the Kur and Rion; the Mingrelians, farther west reaching to the Black Sea; the Gurians, south of the Rion; the Laz, on the Turkish frontiers; and the Svans or Suanetians, between the Mingrelians and the higher Caucasus. (2) The Western division contains the Tcherkess or Circassian race, formerly on the left bank of the Kuban, north of Caucasus; the Abkhasians in the narrow strip of land between the Caucasus and the Black Sea on the south; and the Kabards, north and east of Elburz. (3) The Eastern division contains the Chechenz or Tchetchens on the northern slopes of the Eastern Caucasus down to the Terek; and the Lesghians farther east and south. It is doubtful whether the numerous small tribes called Lesghians have any affinity with the Tchetchens, or how far they are related to one another; only one, the Avars, have a written language, and they use Arabic characters. (4) The Ossetes or Ossetians in the centre of Caucasus, on both slopes about Kazbek, are unquestionably a race of the Aryan stock, and the language has affinity with the Persian branch; they call themselves Irun (probably meaning Aryan). The Kartveli group may contain 850,000 persons; the Western group, 130.000; the Eastern, 520,000; the Ossetian, 120,000. All the Caucasian languages are extremely harsh. Some of them are partially inflectional; all save the Ossetian are substantially agglutinative.

In various portions of this territory there are of course other intrusive elements of population of foreign race: Russian Slavs; Tartars; numerous Armenians; Kurds; Greeks; Tats and other Iranians or Tajiks; and a German colony from Wurtemberg, east of Titlis. Not merely do the inhabitants of the Caucasus differ widely in race, but they represent great variety of stages of culture, from the indolent, music-loving Georgians to the

CAUCHY

wild and semi-barbarous Suanetians. Christianity is the faith of some races, as the Georgians and Ossetes; Mohammedanism of a fanatical type that others, as the Lesghians; while primitive pagan superstitions seem largely to underlie both religious professions. One Kartvelian tribe, the Khevsurs, I has in some measure combined Christianity with ¦ Moslem usages,

The resistance which the Caucasian peoples for more than half a century offered to the arms of Lusia attracted to them the attention of the word. But with the capture in 1859 of Shamyl,

the prophet chief of the Lesghians, who for more than twenty years withstood the armies sent unst him, the power of the Caucasians was shattered; by 1870 it was completely broken. The baik of the Circassians migrated to Turkish territones in Asia or Europe; most of the Abkhasians have done the like. The ancient divisions of the country, Georgia, Imeritia, Svanetia, Mingrelia, &c., were based on tribal distinctions. These have

disappeared from the Russian administrative system. According to the latter, the main range of Caucasus divides the province into Ciscaucasia, north of the mountains, and Transcaucasia to the south of them; the former comprising the governments of Stavropol, Kuban, Terek; the latter, those of Daghestan (really north of Caucasus), Sakatal, Tiflis, Kutais, Sukhum, Black Sea, Elisabetpol, Baku, and Erivan. Add Batoum and Kars Russian Armenia), and the Transcaspian territory, and then Caucasia in the widest sense has an ares of 308,000 sq. m., and a pop. of 6,290,000. The chief town in Ciscaucasia is Vladikavkaz; in Trans taucasia, Tiflis; the two connected by the great nitary road through the Caucasus. The old capital of Georgia was Mtzkhet, a good specimen of a Georgian word. For Caucasus and Caucasia, we the map of Russia and the articles, in this work, CIRCASSIANS, GEORGIA, TRANSCAUCASIA, and, for the wars with Russia, SHAMYL; also Freshfield, Travels in Central Caucasus (1869); Cuninghame, Eastern Caucasus (1872); Bryce, Transcaucasia (1878); Phillipps-Wolley, Savage Svanetia (1883); Dingelstedt on Caucasian Idioms' in Scottish Geographical Magazine (1888); Mourier, Contes et Légendes du Caucase (1888).

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Cauchy, AUGUSTIN LOUIS, mathematician, born in Paris, 21st August 1789, published in 1815 A Memoire sur la Theorie des Ondes, which was afterwards made the basis of the undulatory theory of light Between 1820 and 1830 he wrote several important treatises; and at Prague, where he resided as tutor to the Comte de Chambord, he pubheted his Memoire sur la Dispersion de la Lumiere 1937. From 1848 to 1852 he was professor of Astronomy at Paris, but refused the oath of alle. giance to Napoleon III., and lived in retirement till has death, 23d May 1857. A reissue of his works, in 26 vols, was commenced by the Academy in 182 See his Life by Valson (2 vols. Paris, 1868). Caucus, a private meeting of politicians to Agree upon candidates to be proposed for an ensuing ection, or to fix the business to be laid before à general meeting of their party. The term origin ated in America, where the caucus has taken fast st, the 'ticket,' or list of candidates for federal, state, and municipal offices, being always decided | 9pm by the party leaders; but of late years the system has been introduced into England, and upted by the Radicals, especially in Birmingham, though the word is there used rather for the regularly constituted party organisation. In Notes and Vene for 15 there is a long discussion as to the an of the word, which Sydney Smith used in 1., and John Adams in 1763. Professor Skeat is Incited to refer it to an Indian source, Captain

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John Smith (1609) having Cawcawwassoughes for the Indian councillors of Virginia, and Caucorouse for an Indian captain.

Cauda-galli Grit, the basement subdivision of the Devonian system of North America. The name (lit. 'cock's tail') is derived from the feathery forms of a common fossil, supposed to be a seaweed.

Caudebec, two places in the French department of Seine-Inférieure. Caudebec les Elbeuf, 12 miles S. by W. of Rouen, has a pop. (1886) of Caux, a pretty antique village of 2200 inhabitants, 11,038, and manufactures cloth. Caudeber-en

is on the Seine, 31 miles WNW. of Rouen.

Caudine Forks (Furcula Caudine), two high, narrow, and wooded mountain-gorges near the town of Caudium, in ancient Samnium, on the borders of Campania; noted for the defeat of the Romans in the second Samnite war (321 B.C.). See ROME.

Caul, a portion of the amnion or thin membrane enveloping the foetus, sometimes encompassing the head of a child when born, mentioned here on account of the extraordinary superstitions connected with it from very early ages almost down to the present day. It was the popular belief that children so born would turn out very fortunate, and that the caul brought fortune even to those who purchased it. This superstition was so common in the primitive church, that St Chrysostom inveighed against it in several of his homilies. In later times midwives sold the caul to advocates at high prices, as an especial means of making them eloquent, and to seamen, as an infallible preservative against drowning (ef. Dickens's David Copperfield). It was also supposed that the health of the person born with it could be told by the caul, which, if firm and crisp, betokened health, but if relaxed and flaccid, sickness or death (Notes cauls were often advertised in the newspapers for and Queries, 1884-86). During the 17th century sale from £10 to £30 being the prices asked; and so recently as 8th May 1848, there was an advertisement in the Times of a caul to be sold, which was afloat with its late owner thirty years in all the perils of a seaman's life, and the owner died at last at the place of his birth.' The price asked was six guineas.

Caulaincourt, ARMAND DE, Duke of Vicenza, a statesman of the French empire, born at Caulain court (Aisne), in 1772, early distinguished himself as an officer, was made a general of division in 1805, and shortly after created Duke of Vicenza. Faithful to the last to Napoleon, he was made Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1813, and during the Hundred Days resumed the office, receiving a peerage of France, of which he was deprived after the restoration. He died in Paris, February 19, 1827. See his Souvenirs (1837-40).

cabbage. It was cultivated by the Greeks and Cauliflower, a variety of the common kale or Romans, but was little attended to in England till the end of the 17th century; yet prior to the French Revolution cauliflower formed an article of export from England to Holland, whilst English cauliflower seed is still preferred on the Continent. The deformed inflorescence or heads of the cauliflower only are used. Its cultivation for the supply of Covent Garden and other markets occupies the attention of the market-gardeners of London, Cornwall, Devonshire, and the Channel Islands to a very large extent during winter and spring. It is much more tender than Broccoli (q.v.), and the plants that are reared in August for the purpose of supplying the first crop of the following summer require to be protected under hand-glasses or frames during winter. They require to be freely exposed

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to air in mild or comparatively mild weather, but severe frost must be prevented from entering the glasses or frames. From the middle of August to the 24th of that month, make two or three sowings at intervals of three or four days. The plants reared from these sowings are planted out, a certain portion of the strongest under hand-glasses to furnish the earliest crop; and an abundant reserve of the smaller plants are planted a few inches apart in frames, to be planted out finally in the spring in the open ground. To succeed these a sowing may be made in a hotbed in January or February; and again in March and May, plants should be reared for successional crops, these later sowings being made in the open ground. The ground must be rich and the cultivation high to produce cauliflower of first-rate quality; there is some risk, however, in having the ground too rich for the winter crop in the case of severe weather occurring; if the plants are extra luxuriant, they will the more readily succumb to frost.

CAUSALITY

Causality, or the theory of the relation between cause and effect, is one of the most intricate and important questions of philosophical doctrine. All scientific investigation is occupied with the search for the causes of given events, or for the effects of given causes, and with the generalisation of these into laws of nature. But the nature and ground of the relation between cause and effect are obscure and disputed.

The difficulty of the question is largely increased by the uncertain signification of the word cause. Thus the investigation into the cause of things, with which early Greek speculation was occupied, was really an inquiry for the ultimate constituent or element from which the variety of actual existence had proceeded; and from this inquiry the quest for a principle of change or development was only gradually distinguished. The first important step in the direction of clear discussion was made in Aristotle's doctrine of the four causes the material cause, out of which a thing Caulking, in wood shipbuilding, is the operais framed; the formal cause, or the essence or tion of driving oakum or untwisted rope into the idea of the thing; the efficient or active cause, by seams of the outside planks, or of the deck plank-final cause or purpose it subserves. These, it is means of which it took its present form; and the ing, to render them watertight. The quantity thus driven in depends on the thickness of the planking; it varies from 1 to 13 double threads of oakum, with 1 or 2 single threads of spun yarn. The caulker first raims or reems the seam-that is, drives a caulking-iron into it, to widen the seam as much as possible, and close any rents or fissures in the wood; he then drives in a little spun yarn or white oakum with a wood mallet and a caulking chisel, and afterwards a much larger quantity of black or coarse oakum. The fibres are driven in until they form a densely hard mass, which not only keeps out water, but strengthens the planking. The seam is finally coated or payed with hot pitch or resin.

In iron or steel shipbuilding and boilermaking the term covers the operation of driving the edge of one thickness of plating firmly against the other thickness upon which it is superimposed, or to which it is adjacent, thus rendering the joints watertight. The tool employed is a specially formed chisel, struck by a metal hand-hammer; but endeavours have been made to supplant this by steam-driven machines, so far with but indiffer

ent success.

Caulop'teris, a generic name for the stems of certain extinct tree-ferns, which range from the Devonian to the Permian system. They are hollow, and covered with markings similar to the leaf-scars on recent tree-ferns.

Caura, a considerable river of Venezuela, rises among the sierras of the southern frontier, and flows NNW. to the Orinoco. On both sides stretches the territory of Caura (22,485 sq. m.), with immense forests of tonka beans.

Caus, CAULX, or CAULS, SALOMON DE, engineer, born at Dieppe in 1576, was a Protestant, and lived much in England and Germany. He was in the service of the Prince of Wales in 1612, and of the Elector Palatine, at Heidelberg, in 1614-20; but by 1623 he returned to France, and became engineer and architect to the king. He died in Paris, 6th June 1626. At Frankfort in 1615 appeared his Raisons des Forces Mouvantes, &c., a work in which is described an apparatus for forcing up water by a steam fountain, differing only in one detail from that of Della Porta (see STEAMENGINE). There is no reason to suppose that the apparatus ever was constructed; but on the strength of the description, Arago has claimed for De Caus the invention of the steam-engine. See the article DE CAUS in vol. xiv. of the Dict. of National Biography (1888).

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to be observed, are not so much causes in the modern sense of the term, as principles which enter into the existence of everything. In modern science the meaning of the term is much more restricted, corresponding in some degree to what Aristotle called the efficient cause. Thus both Bacon and Descartes wished to banish the notion

of final cause from the scientific interpretation of nature; and although, in Bacon's own method, science was treated as an inquiry into the form or true nature of things (corresponding thus to Aristotle's formal cause), this notion has had little influence. What Descartes sought, and

what science still seeks, is the connection rather

But the notion of

than the essence of things; and its ideal is a
mechanical interpretation of nature in terms of
matter and motion. In modern science cause
may therefore be said to mean the explanation
of change. To some extent it corresponds with
Aristotle's efficient cause.
efficient cause has itself undergone a profound
modification, which seems to have been carried
out alongside of the formulating of the principle
of the conservation of energy. The tendency in
science has been to replace the notion of power or
The genesis and justification of the notion of
efficiency by that of order or constant sequence.
efficiency are matters of dispute: whether it is an
a priori intuition, or derived from the conscious-
ness of the voluntary direction of attention, or
from the sensations of innervation and muscular
resistance. Both Berkeley and Hume directed a
vigorous polemic against the doctrine of power
expressed by Locke, as going beyond the observed
facts of the motion of bodies, and Hume refused
to see in mind any more than in matter anything
else than a succession of impressions and ideas.
Into the rights of this controversy it is impossible
to enter here. But clearness of scientific state-
ment has certainly been gained by the extrusion
of the notion of power, and substitution for it of
that of regular sequence. It is in following out
this view of the physical as distinct from the
efficient cause that the term comes to be defined
as the aggregate of the conditions or antecedents
necessary to the production of the effect: meaning
by necessary conditions those conditions without
which the effect either would not have existed at
all, or would have been different from what it is.
In popular language, however, and even in most
scientific inquiries, the term cause is restricted to
the one or two conditions by the intervention of
which amongst other more permanent conditions

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