St Columba's character was very complex, but marked in all things by enthusiasm and earnestness. Warlike and aggressive by temper and descent, as well as from the spirit of the times, he was naturally more inclined to action than to melancholy, and yet he had a tendency to expatiate amid visions; and though his disposition was prevailingly austere, he had frequent gleams of tenderness and kindness. Angelic in appearance, says Adamnan, graceful in speech, holy in work, with talents of the highest order and consummate prudence, he lived during thirty-four years an island soldier. He never could spend the space even of one hour without study, or praver, or writing, or some other holy occupation. So incessantly was he engaged night and day in the unwearied exercises of fasting and watching, that the burden of each of these austerities would seem beyond the power of all human endurance. And still in all these he was beloved by all; for a holy joy ever beaming on his face revealed the joy and gladness with which the Holy Spirit filled his inmost soul.'

In the ecclesiastical system of St Columba as in that of Ireland, the church was essentially monastic with neither a territorial episcopacy nor anything like presbyterian parity, but the same anomalous position of the episcopal order. The bishops were under the monastic rule, and as such were in respect of jurisdiction subject to the abot, even though a presbyter, as the head of the monastery; but while the power usually reserved to the episcopate was thus transferred to the abbatial office, the episcopal orders were fully recognised as constituting a grade superior to that of the presbyters, and as carrying with them the functions of ordination and celebration of the encharist according to the episcopal rite. Columba himself, as well as his followers generally tui the year 716, kept Easter on a different day,

St

and shaved their heads after another fashion than obtained in other parts of Western Christendom. Bat with these exceptions, their creed and rites appear to have been substantially the same.

The chief authority for the life of St Columba is the account written by St Adamnan (q.v.), who was aboot of lona from 679 to 704, and who incorporated in his work an earlier life by Cuimine (abbot, 657 669. Of this Dr Reeves published an edition in 1857 for the Bannatyne Club, and it has since been re-issued in the Scottish Historian' series 18741. See also Smith's Life of St Columba (Edin. 178; Lanigan's Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (1822); Father Innes's History of Scotland (Spalding Club, 1853); Montalembert's Monks of the West, vol. iii.; Forbes's Kalendars of Scottish Saints Elin. 1872); and Skene's Celtic Scotland, vol. ii. (Edin. 1877).

near the Lake of Constance, he passed into Lombardy, and in 612 founded the famous monastery of Bobbio, in the Apennines, where he died on the 21st November 615. His life, written within a century after his death, by Jonas, one of his successors in the abbacy of Bobbio, has been repeatedly printed. The writings of St Columban, which are wholly in Latin, consist of a rule for the government of his monastery, six poems on the vanity of life, several letters on ecclesiastical affairs, seventeen short sermons, and a commentary on the Psalms (first published at Rome in 1878). The most complete edition of his works is in Patrick Fleming's Collectanea Sacra (Augsburg, 1621; Louvain, 1667), followed by the Bibliotheca Patrum, and Migne's Patrologia Cursus (1844). The town of San Colombano, in the province of Milan, takes its name from the Irish monk, as the town and canton of St Gall (q.v.), in Switzerland, perpetuate the name of the most favoured of his disciples. See the Vita by his successor Jonas of Bobbio, Montalembert's Monks of the West, and Wright's Biographia Literaria.

Columba'rium (Lat.), a dovecot or pigeonhouse, which probably differed little in form from those in modern use, but was sometimes built on a much larger scale, as we read in Varro of as many as five thousand birds being kept in the same house. The same name was applied to the niches or pigeon-holes in a particular kind of sepulchral chamber in which the urns (olla) containing the ashes of dead bodies burned were deposited. Each niche usually contained two urns, and the four walls of the sepulchre sometimes contained as many as one hundred niches or more. The names of this description were chiefly used by great of the persons were inscribed underneath. Tombs families for depositing the ashes of their slaves and dependants.

Columbia, the name of nearly thirty places in the United States, of which the most important are: (1) The capital of South Carolina, at the head of navigation on the Congaree River, 130 miles NNW. of Charleston by rail. The town is regularly built, with several handsome streets, and contains a fine granite state-house (83,000,000) and other official buildings, It is the seat of a Presbyterian theological seminary, and of the university of South Carolina (1806). Pop. (1890) 15,353.-(2) A borough of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, on the Susquehanna, which is here crossed by a railway bridge, 80 miles W. of Philadelphia, with several iron-furnaces and rolling-mills, and manufactures of machinery, flour, &e. Pop. (1890) 10,597.—(3) The capital of Maury county, Tennessee, on the Duck River, 45 miles SSW, of Nashville by rail, with manufactures of ploughs, furniture, and flour. Pop. (1890), with suburbs, about 7000.-(4) The capital of Boone county, Missouri, 24 miles E. of Boonville, with manufactures of flour, tobacco, and woollens, the seat of the state university (1840), which is open to both sexes, and has some five hundred students and fifteen professors. Pop. (1890) 3985.

It is

298,000 sq. m. The river is broken by falls and rapids into many separate portions, and the ingress and egress are embarrassed by a surfbeaten bar. Still, it is open to steamboat navigation from its mouth to the Cascades (160 miles), and goods are carried past the obstruction, for 6 miles, by railway; the next reach, of 50 miles, extends to Dalles, where another railway, of 14 miles, has been constructed past the Great Dalles channel; and immediately above this are two sections, of 185 and 250 miles respectively, navigable for small steamboats. The extraordinarily abundant salmon-fisheries of the Columbia have been largely developed. There are a number of canneries, mostly near the mouth of the river, and in the fifteen years ending 1881 the annual export of canned salmon rose from 4000 to 530,000

cases.

Columbia, BRITISH, is a province of the Dominion of Canada, bounded in the N. by the 60th parallel of latitude; on the S. by the United States; on the W. by the Pacific Ocean and part of Alaska; and on the E. by the provisional districts of Alberta and Athabasca (Northwest Territories). The area of the province is recorded as 390,344 sq. m., including Vancouver Island (14,000 sq. m.) and Queen Charlotte Islands (5100 sq. m.). The last named consist of a group of about 150 islands, their united length being 156 miles, lying about 200 miles north-west of Vancouver Island. British Columbia was practically under the control of the Hudson Bay Company until 1858, when owing to the discovery of gold, and the consequent immigration of miners, it was made a crown colony. Vancouver Island was made a crown colony in 1849, and leased to the Hudson Bay Company for ten years. The two colonies were united in 1866, and the province joined the Canadian Confederation on 20th July

1871.

The scenery is rugged and picturesque, being diversified with mountain, lake, and river. Between the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains (highest peaks, Mount Brown, 16,000 feet, and Mount Hooker, 15,700 feet) and the sea the whole of the space is occupied to a considerable extent by spurs and outlying groups belonging to that chain. In the immediate vicinity of the coast these form a nearly continuous line of mountains of moderate elevation, known as the Cascade Range. The territory is well watered by rivers which have their origin in the highlands, and find their way into the Pacific Ocean. Of the rivers the most important is the Fraser, 800 miles long, and 600 yards wide at its principal outlet in the Gulf of Georgia, the arm of the sea which separates Vancouver Island from the mainland. Other rivers in British Columbia are the Columbia (which has only its upper portion within the province), the Stickeen, the Skeena, and the Finlay.

Many varieties of climate are found in this province. That of Vancouver Island and the coast of the mainland is very similar to that of the south of England. The interior of the mainland is divided as to climate into three zones-the south, the middle, and the north. The south lies, for the most part, between the 49th and 51st parallels N. lat., and the fall of rain and snow in this district is slight. It contains a good deal of grass or pasturage lands, but for arable purposes the land requires irrigation. Between 51° and 53° N. lat. is the middle zone; it includes the high mountains west of the Columbia, contains dense forests, and the rainfall is considerable. The north zone lies between 53 and 60° N. lat.

Population. In 1881 the population according to the census returns was 49,459, including 25.66) Indians. It was, in 1888, estimated at bes

70,000 and 80,000. The principal towns on Vancouver Island are Victoria, the capital (14,000 inhabitants), and Nanaimo (5000); on the mainland there are New Westminster (4000), formerly the capital of British Columbia, and Vancouver (5000), the terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The Indians of British Columbia are as a rule law-abiding and industrious. The coast Indians live largely by hunting and fishing, and are also employed in connection with the lumber industry and the salmon-canneries.

The province is represented in the Dominion Senate by three members, and in the House of Commons by six. The provincial government is administered by a lieutenant-governor, appointed and paid by the Dominion, and a Legislative Assembly of 27 members, elected by the inhabitants. Education is compulsory and free between the ages of seven and twelve.

The province is not likely to become an agricultural country, but there is a considerable area of land available for arable and pastoral farming both on Vancouver Island and on the mainland in the river valleys. On the west of the island but little arable land is to be found. The principal settlements are upon the east and south coasts, but good land is still to be found on the east coast, and also on the north. The rich valley of the lower Fraser, or New Westminster district, is the largest compact agricultural area on the mainland. There are large tracts of alluvial soil farther up the Fraser and along some of its most important tributaries. Of the total area (say 250,000,000 acres) only about 500,000 acres are as yet occupied. The fruit-growing industry is expected to become important, but it is still in its infancy. The principal industries of the province are connected with the mines, the fisheries, and the forests. The minerals form one of its chief resources. Gold, coal, silver, iron, copper, galena, mercury, platinum, antimony, bismuth, molybdenum, plumbago, mica, and other minerals have been discovered in different parts, copper being very widely distributed. Gold was produced in 1887 to the value of $693,709, and the value of the output from 1858 to 1887 was $50,983,226. The quartz-mines have hardly been touched; all the metal hitherto secured has come from the alluvial deposits. Coal and lignite are known to exist in many parts of the mainland. At Nanaimo, on Vancouver Island, there is a large coal-field, and the mines are the most import ant on the Pacific coast. Over 413,000 tons were raised in 1887, and 334,839 tons were exported, largely to the United States. Nanaimo is connected by rail with Esquimalt, the headquarters of the Pacific squadron, and the site of a large graving-dock. Iron is found in many localities. The fisheries of the province are most extensive, but excepting the salmon-fishery have not yet been developed. The seas, bays, gulfs, rivers, and lakes of the province swarm with food-fishes. There are numerous salmon-canneries in operation. The fursealing industry in the Pacific is also a valuable one. But little timber has yet been cut, notwithstanding the immense forests of magnificent trees that abound in British Columbia. The important com mercial trees are the Douglas pine, Menzies fir, yellow cypress, and maple, and the shipments so far have been chiefly to Australia, South America, the Cape, and China.

The value of the imports in 1887 was $3,626,139, of which $793,434 came from Great Britain, and $2,059,035 from the United States. The exports were valued at $21,841. To Great Britain the exports were $8' and to the United States, $2.220,092.

Until the compi y in 1885,

The Canadian Pacific mbia was isolated

COLUMBIA

from the rest of the Dominion, and the various parts of the province had little or no communication with each other. Now, however, everything points to a rapid increase in its population and in the consequent development of its resources. It certainly occupies a favourable position in regard to the markets of the west of South America and Australasia; and it is hoped that it may become the entrepôt for a through trade between Canada, China, and Australia. Lines of steamers are already passing between Vancouver and Hong. kong; and in 1888 proposals were under the consideration of the Imperial, Canadian, and Australian governments for the laying of a cable under the Pacific Ocean.

Columbia, DISTRICT OF, in the United States. See DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

Columbia College, in New York city, was founded in 1754 as King's College, and reincor porated under its present title in 1784. The first class, of eight, met in the vestry of old Trinity Church, July 17, 1754; in 1760 the college settled in a building near the city-hall, whence it removed to its present position (49th and 50th Streets and Madison and Fourth Avenues) in 1857. It comprises a department of arts, and schools of law and of mines, &c., and is richly endowed. Affiliated with Columbia College and controlled by its officers is Barnard College for Women, established in 1889. Columbidæ. See PIGEON, BIRD. Columbine (Ital. colombina, 'little dove'), the female mask of the Italian improvised plays, variously figuring as the attendant of Pantaloon's daughter, or, occasionally, as the daughter herself. She is the betrothed of Harlequin, and, frequently clad in a parti-coloured dress resembling the latter's costume, she is hence called Arlecchinetta. In other cases she appears in the accurate garb of a chambermaid, but retains always her mask. For the dances of the English harlequinade, see PANTOMIME.

Columbine (Aquilegia), a genus of plants of the natural order Ranunculacea, having five coloured sepals, which soon fall off, and five petals

nectaries suggest the heads and necks, and the divergent sepals the fluttering wings. They are natives of the temperate and colder regions of the northern hemisphere. One, the Common Columbine (A. vulgaris), is found in woods in some parts of Britain, and has long been familiar as an inmate of flower-gardens. It is a perennial, generally 2 to 3 feet high, with flowers of considerable beauty. Columbine was formerly much esteemed for medicinal virtues, which are now seldom heard of.Some of the other species are very ornamental, and are pretty common in flower-borders.

Columbium. See TANTALUM.

Columbus, the capital of the state of Ohio, on the Scioto River, 116 miles NE. of Cincinnati and 138 miles SSW. of Cleveland. Copyright 1889 in U′ 8. Its site is level, its streets are by J. B. Lippincott broad, and in the centre of the city Company. is a public square of 10 acres, in which stands the state capitol, a fine stone structure 304 feet long by 184 feet wide. Among other noted edifices are the city-hall, containing a public library and city offices; a court-house erected at a cost of $400,000; United States government and Board of Trade buildings; a large state penitentiary; a hospital for the insane, with a farm of 300 acres, and accommodation for 900 patients, erected at a cost of $1,520,980; and institutions for the blind, the deaf and dumb, &c. Here also are located the Ohio State University, with its grounds of 320 acres, and the Capital University (Lutheran), both libers lly endowed; and in the public schools over 11,000 pupils are registered. Fourteen lines of railway radiate from the Union Depot in this city in all directions, which, added to the natural advantage of its proximity to the great coal and iron fields of the state, tend to a rapid development of its manufacturing industries. The annual product of its manufactories reaches a value of more than $15,000,000, giving employment to over 13,000 operatives. Columbus was founded in 1812. Pop. (1870) 31,274; (1880) 51,647; (1890) 88,150.

Columbus is also the name of some twenty other places in the United States, the most important being: (1) Capital of Muscogee county, Georgia, situated on the Chattahoochee River at the junction of several lines of railroad, 100 miles SSW. of Atlanta. It has a large trade in cotton, and extensive manufactures of cotton, woollen, and iron goods. Pop. (1880) 10,123; (1890) 17,303, including suburbs, about 31,000.—(2) Capital of Bartholomew county, Indiana, 41 miles S. by E. of Indianapolis, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. (1890) 6705.—(3) Capital of Lowndes county, Mississippi, on the Tombigbee River, and on a branch railroad about 150 miles NE. of JackPop. (1890) 4552.-(4) Capital of Colorado county, Texas, on the Colorado' River, about 95 miles SSE. of Austin by rail. Pop. about 3000.

son.

Columbus, CHRISTOPHER (a Latinised form of the Italian Cristoforo Colombo; the Spanish form, Cristobal Colon, corresponds to Copyright 199 in US another Latinisation into Colonus),

ty JB Lippincott Company.

as

Common Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris).

man to Tunis, to cut out a captured galley. It is not a little remarkable that on this occasion his men, like so many of his later crews, refused to obey his orders; and he was obliged, as more than once in later years, to deceive them as to his real course. The accounts of his early voyages are obscure and of doubtful accuracy. About 1470 he was wrecked in a sea-fight off Cape St Vincent, and reached the shores of Portugal on a plank. In Lisbon he married the daughter of one Perestrello, or Pellestrello, an Italian navigator, who had governed Porto Santo, off Madeira, for the Portuguese king. On this island Columbus resided for some time, making charts for the support of his family, and studying the maps and papers left by his father-in-law.

As early as 1474 he had conceived the design of reaching India by sailing westward. In 1477, he tells us, he sailed 100 leagues beyond Thule,' probably to or beyond Iceland, where he may have got some vague hint of the old Norse adventures on the American coast. Columbus soon after this began to seek a patron for his intended expedition. He applied to the senate of Genoa; once or more to King John II. of Portugal; later by letters to Henry VII. of England; then to the rich and powerful dukes of Medina Sidonia and Medina Celi, in Spain, of whom the last named at length referred him to Isabella the Catholic, queen of Castile. His application to the queen was submitted to a body of jurors, most of them ecclesiastics, who reported adversely to the project of the Genoese mariner. Finally, through the intervention of Juan Perez de Marchena, a monk who had been the queen's confessor, he was brought in contact with their Catholic majesties, Ferdinand and Isabella. His plans and demands were once more rejected, but afterwards reconsidered; and finally, after seven years of alternate encouragement and repulse, his proposals were accepted by the monarchs, in the camp of Santa Fé, April 17, 1492. On Friday, August 3, 1492, Columbus, now an admiral, set sail from the bar of Saltes, an island near Palos, in command of the small ship Santa Maria, with 50 men, and attended by two little caravels, the Pinta and the Niña, the whole squadron comprising only 120 adventurers. He first made the Canary Islands, whence, on the 6th of September, he set sail westward. On the 13th a variation of the magnetic needle was observed, a circumstance which struck terror into the hearts of his followers. From this and various other causes he found it hard to keep up the courage and patience of his crews. On Friday, October 12, land was descried. There is no doubt that this first landfall, named San Salvador by Columbus, was one of the Bahama Islands; and the more general recent opinion would appear to be that it was what is now called Watling's Island; but this is not by any means certain. He then visited Cuba and Hayti, which he named Hispaniola or Little Spain, and where he planted a small colony of Spaniards. He set sail on his return with his two caravels (for his flagship had been wrecked), and after an exceedingly tempestuous voyage, the Niña alone cast anchor in the Tagus. He re-entered the port of Palos, March 15, 1493. On the very same day the Pinta also, which had parted company from him more than a month before, entered the same port, having been driven out of her course to Bayonne. The voyagers brought back with them some gold, varions plants, birds, and land animals, and six natives of the West Indies. Columbus was received with the highest honours by the court, then at Barcelona, and was hailed as admiral of the sea and a grandee of Spain.

He sailed on his second voyage on the 25th of September, with three carracks and seventeen small

COLUMELLA

caravels, and on the 3d of November sighted the island of Dominica in the West Indies. His remaining career presents one long series of failures, vexations, and miseries. After a succession of wretched quarrels with his associates, and a long and desperate illness in Hispaniola, he returned to Spain much dejected in 1496. His third voyage, begun in 1498, resulted in the discovery of the South American mainland. In 1499 Columbus and his brother were sent home in irons by a newlyappointed royal governor; but the king and queen repudiated this action, and restored Columbus to favour. His last great voyage (1502-4), along the south side of the Gulf of Mexico, was accomplished in the midst of great hardships and in many distresses of body and mind. Spanish jealousy of the foreigner and of his well-earned honours worked against him on sea no less than at court. Columbus died at Valladolid, in Spain, May 20, 1506. He was buried at Valladolid; but in 1513 his remains were translated to Seville, whence in 1536, with those of his son Diego, they were removed to Santo Domingo, in Hispaniola. In 1796 they were, it is stated, transferred to the cathedral at Havana; but there is some reason to believe that by mistake it was the bones of Diego Colon, and not those of his father, which were removed on the last-named occasion. At present both Havana and Santo Domingo claim his ashes as their treasure. A man of ardent impulses and strongly poetical imagination, Columbus was hardly the stuff that leaders are made of; consequently he failed to control the turbulent and adventurous spirits among his followers. Although an honestly and earnestly religious and truly conscientious man, he was not seldom guilty of acts which subsequently brought him many compunctions of conscience. Irritable and impetuous, he was, nevertheless, magnanimous and benevolent. His conduct in the capture and sale of slaves, though justified by the jurists and divines of the time, was indignantly condemned by the queen, and can only be explained by the desire of Columbus and the crown to obtain some revenue from his new discoveries, and by the expectation that while detained in slavery the natives might become christianised.

His brother BARTHOLOMEW, who died in Cuba in 1514, was a man of high character and excellent abilities, and assisted Columbus effectively in his labours.-Another brother, GIACOMO (called in Spain DIEGO), who also assisted him in his West Indian government, was a man of gentle and pacifie disposition, but was no match for the turbulent adventurers he attempted to control. - Christopher's eldest son, Diego (about 1480-1526), was the heir to his honours, merits, and misfortunes. The great discoverer left also a natural son, Don Fernando (1488–1539), who wrote an important Life of his father, preserved only in an Italian translation (Venice, 1571). In 1578 the last legitimate descendant of Columbus in the male line died.

Among the biographies of Columbus the best in English are those of Irving (1831), St John (1850), Crompton (1859), and Helps (1868). See also The Narrative and Critical History of \ America, edited by Winsor, vol. ii.; Harrisse, Colomb (Paris, 1884); and Varaldo, L'Origint | di Cristoforo Colombo (1887).

Columella (Lat., a little column') is a term used by botanists, zoologists, and anatomists, in a number of totally distinct senses. Thus, for the conchologist it is (1) the central axis of a spiral univalve; for the vertebrate anatomist it is (2) the auditory ossicle of the amphibian ear. Again, the student of mosses employs the term 3 to denote the central axis of the spore-case of mosses, while in phanerogamic botany the term is some