Cazorla, a town of Andalusia, Spain, 40 miles ENE. of Jaën. Pop. 6651.

Ceanothus. See RED ROOT.

Ceará, a province of Brazil, on the north coast, with an area of 40,240 sq. m., and (1885) 722,000 inhabitants. The interior presents a succession of wooded hills and wide plateaus; cattle-raising is an important industry; cotton, coffee, and sugar are largely grown; and iron and gold are found. The capital, Ceará, had formerly only an open roadstead, but in 1888 extensive harbour improvements, with breakwater and viaduct, were nearing completion. It is the terminus of a railway to Baturité (90 miles), and has a large trade. Pop. 35,000.

Cebadilla. See SABADILLA.

Ce'bes, a Theban, disciple and friend of Socrates, and reputed author of the Pinax, or votive tablet, a philosophical dialogue, representing allegorically the temptations of this life, and teaching that True Learning can alone make for happiness. In spite of its pure Attic, and its truly Socratic tendency, modern criticism now assigns the work to the 2d century A.D. It was extremely popular in the middle ages, a sort of Pilgrim's Progress' indeed; and was translated into all the languages of Europe, as well as Arabic, which latter version, made possibly in the 9th century, is our sole record of the close of the dialogue. See Jerram's Cebetis Tabula (Oxf. Clar. Press, 1878). Cebu, or ZEBU, is one of the Philippine Islands (q.v.), the seventh in respect of area.

Ce'bus (Gr., an ape' or 'monkey'), a genus of South American monkeys, characterised by a round head and short muzzle, a facial angle of about 60°, long thumbs, and a long prehensile tail entirely covered with hair. The body is covered with short, thick hair. Their voice is soft and pitiful. The species are numerous, all of very lively disposition and gregarious arboreal habits, living in trees. They feed chiefly on fruits, but also on insects, worms, and molluses. Various species are often seen in zoological gardens and menageries. They are included under the popular designation Sapajou in its wider sense, and some of them are the monkeys to which this name is sometimes more strictly appropriated. The names Sajou and Sai or Cai are also given to some of them, and some are called Capuchin (q.v.) Monkeys. One of the most common species in Guiana is the Weeper Monkey, or Weeper Sapajou (C. apella). Some of the species are adorned with beards. The term Cebidae is often used as a family designation for all the broad-nosed New-World Monkeys (Platyrrhini) with prehensile tails, in contrast to the Pithecida, in which the tail is not so adapted. In this family are included the Howling Monkeys (Mycetes), the Spider Monkeys (Ateles), and other genera. See MONKEYS.

Cecidomy'ia (Gr. kekidion, ‘a gall-nut, and myia, a fly' or 'gnat'), a genus of dipterous (twowinged) insects in the Tipularia (gnat and mosquito) division. They have beautiful, delicate, downy wings, which have three nervures, and are horizontal when at rest; antennæ as long as the body, with bead-like joints, and whorls of hairs at the joints; long legs, and the first joint of the tarsi very short. The species are numerous; nearly thirty in Britain, and sixty in Europe. All are of small size, but some of them are very important on account of the ravages which their minute maggots effect in grain-crops. C. cerealis, sometimes called the Barley Midge, a brownish-red fly with silvery

CECROPIA

wings, of which the maggot is vermilion coloured, is often very destructive to crops of barley and spelt in Germany. The little maggots live in families between the stalk and the sheath of the leaf, abstracting the juice of the plant.-The Wheat-fly (q.v.) and the Hessian Fly (q.v.) belong to this genus. Some of the species of Cecidomyia deposit their eggs on the young buds of trees, which the larvæ transform into galls.

While forms like the Hessian fly are of great account of its extraordinary mode of reproduction, of economic importance, another Cecidomyia is, on great scientific interest. According to Wagner, the female lays her eggs under tree-bark or the like; these develop in winter into larvae. The larva, still immature, become reproductive and parthenogenetic. The ovaries rupture, the eggs fall into the body-cavity, where the stimulus of fertilisation is somehow replaced, for the ova develop into larvæ. These eat their parent larva, and after finishing the viscera, leave the empty skin. The nemesis of reproduction overtakes them also, for within them again, though likewise only larvæ, a fresh batch of larvæ develops in similar fashion. After several generations of this immature and fatal reproduction, the final set of larvæ metamorphose in summer into sexual winged insects. See REPRODUCTION.

Cecil. See BURGHLEY and SALISBURY.

Cecilia, ST, the patroness of music, especially church music, is said to have suffered martyrdom in 230 A.D. Her heathen parents belonged to a noble Roman family, and betrothed their daughter, already a secret convert to Christianity, to a heathen youth named Valerian, who also was soon converted, and ere long suffered martyrdom together with his brother Tiberius. Cecilia, when commanded to sacrifice to idols, firmly refused, and was condemned to death. She was first thrown into a boiling bath, from which she emerged unhurt; next the executioner struck three blows upon her neck with a sword, then fled in horror. Three days later his victim died of her wounds, and received the martyr's crown. She was buried by Pope Urban in the catacombs of Callistus. As early as the 5th century, there is mention of a church dedicated to St Cecilia at Rome; and in 821, by order of the Pope Paschal, her bones were deposited there. St Cecilia is regarded as the inventor of the organ, and in the Roman Catholic Church her festival-day, November 22, is celebrated with splendid music. Some of our greatest poets, as Chaucer, Dryden, and Pope, have laid poetic tributes on the shrine of St Cecília-the greatest is Dryden's splendid ode. The most famous paintings of St Cecilia are those of Raphael at Bologna, Carlo Dolce in the Dresden Gallery, Domenichino in the Louvre, and Rubens in the Berlin Museum.-Another St Cecilia was born in Africa, and suffered martyrdom by starvation under Diocletian. Her festival falls on the 11th of February.

C.

Cecropia, a genus of Artocarpacea. peltata, the Trumpet-tree of the West Indies and South America, has a hollow stem and branches, exhibiting merely membraneous partitions at the nodes. The branches, these partitions being removed, are made into water-pipes and windinstruments. The wood is very light, and is used to make floats for nets, and by the Indians in kindling fires by friction against a harder piece of wood. The bast yields a cordage fibre, and the outer bark is astringent, the fruit resembles a rasp. berry, the buds furnish a potherb, while the juice hardens into caoutchouc. The leaves and fruit are largely consumed by sloths. The hollow stem is largely inhabited by ants.

CECROPS

Cecrops, a Pelasgic hero, the first king of Attica, sometimes represented as half man and half dragon. He divided Attica into twelve commanities, founded Athens, the citadel of which, at first called Cecropia, commemorated his name, instituted marriage and the worship of the gods, and introduced agriculture, navigation, and commerce. Late writers explained Cecrops as the leader of a colony from Sais in Egypt.

Cedar, or CEDAR OF LEBANON, a tree much celebrated from the most ancient times for its beauty, its magnificence, and its longevity, as well as for the excellence and durability of its timber. It is often mentioned in Scripture; it supplied the woodwork of Solomon's temple; and in the poetry of the Old Testament it is a frequent emblem of prosperity, strength, and stability. It belongs to the natural order Conifera, and is the Pinus Cedrus of the older botanists; but is now ranked in the genus Cedrus under the name of C. Libani, in reference to its best-known habitat, Mount LebAbon. It is found, however, on other mountains odria and Asia Minor, and also in Cyprus.

Of the celebrated Cedars of Lebanon only a few now remain. Situated at the head of the Kedisha Valley at 6314 feet elevation, they consist of a grove of trees, 377 in number in 1875, five only being of

Cedars of Lebanon.

gigantic size, measuring 30 feet round. In age hey may vary from 50 or 80 to 800 or 1000 years; hat as they have long ceased to add regularly yearly centric rings of wood to their trunks, there are rehable data by which to estimate the age of the few patriarchal cedars that yet remain on the Leianon. Arabs of all creeds have a traditional veneration for these trees; and Maronites, Greeks, and Armenians annually celebrate mass on a b.mely altar of stone at their feet.

The general aspect of the cedar is distinct and majestic in fully developed trees. The trunk is Baive, but attains only a moderate height-50 to feet-much branched; the branches assume the proportions of timber, are horizontal, and spreading aily so as to exceed the total height. They are arranged in apparent whorls, or stages, and the branchlets springing from them in a flat fan like fashion in great profusion and density impart a tabu

whiteness that gives to them a strikingly venerable aspect. The cones are erect on the upper sides of the branches, from 3 to 5 inches long and 2 to 24 inches broad, blunt at both ends. They require two years to reach maturity, and do not, as in the case of other allied conifers, drop from the branches, but when ripe the scales only along with the seeds drop to the ground, and leave the axis of the cone attached to the branch.

The timber of the Lebanon cedar enjoyed a high reputation for durability in ancient times, which, however, is hardly supported by modern experience. The wood of trees that have been grown in Britain and other parts of Europe has proved light, soft, brittle, liable to warp, and far from durable, probably owing to the immaturity of these comparatively young, though well-developed, samples, and also perhaps to climatic influence. The superior quality of the timber of the Lebanon trees is attested by Sir Joseph Hooker, who visited the famous cedar grove in 1860.

The secretions of the cedar of Lebanon have long been celebrated for remarkable properties. The whitish resin (Cedria) which it exudes, it is said the Egyptians used in embalming their dead. Ancient writings were kept in cabinets or boxes of cedar-wood, but it would appear to be rather dangerous to commit modern printed documents to such repositories. Mr Smee, in My Garden, says: The wood of the cedar contains a volatile essential oil, which has the curious property of unsettling printers ink and making it run. Some years ago a Bank of England note was offered to the cashier with its printing disturbed. Inquiry was set on foot, and it was traced to several individuals, who satisfactorily explained its custody and possession. It was then brought to me, when I suggested that the detectives should inquire whether it had been kept in a cedar box; it was then discovered that the last possessor had kept it in a new cedar box which she had recently bought, and thus the mystery was solved. In very ancient times, cedaroil, a kind of turpentine, was prepared from the wood, and was spread on books in order to their better preservation. The branches of the cedar, like those of the larch in warm countries, exude a sweet substance, which is known by the name of Cedar Manna.

The botanist Belon brought a Lebanon cedar with him to France in 1549: when it was intro

duced into Britain is not exactly known. The dis tinction of introducing it is ascribed with most evidence of accuracy to Evelyn, who in his Sylva (published 1664) mentions having received cones and seeds from the mountains of Libanus,' while describing the beauties of the tree and speaking of its probable adaptability to the English climate. Aiton in Hortus Kewensis makes 1683 the date of planting the celebrated Chelsea cedars, which are assumed by some to have been the first trees planted in England. There are many fine specimens of the Lebanon cedar in different parts of Britain, notably at Sion House, Goodwood, and Enfield in England, and at Hopetoun, Dalkeith,

and Beaufort in Scotland.

The Deodar, or Himalayan Cedar (Cedrus Deodara), a tree held in great veneration by the Hindus, and of which the name is properly Devadara (‘divine tree'), is common in the Himalaya mountains at elevations of 7000 to 12,000 feet, forming magnificent forests, and attaining a great size, a height sometimes of 150 feet, with a trunk 30 feet or more in circumference, an ample head, and spreading branches. It and the cedar of Algiers (C. Atlantica or Africana), found in the mountainous regions of the north of Africa, are but sub-species or varieties of the Cedrus Libani. The wood of the deodar is resinous, fragrant, compact, and very durable. It is susceptible of a high polish, and in its polished state has been compared to brown agate. Owing to the abundance of resin, laths of it burn like candles. Its turpentine is very fluid, and although coarse, is much used in India for medical purposes; and tar and pitch are obtained from the trunk. The deodar has now become very common as an ornamental tree in Britain, although few specimens have yet attained a very considerable size. -The name cedar is often given to other coniferous trees besides the true cedars. Thus, the Siberian Stone Pine, or Cembra Pine, is called the Siberian Cedar (see PINE), and a species of fir (Abies religiosa) is the Red Cedar of California (see FIR). A species of Cypress (q.v.) is known as White Cedar, and another as the Cedar of Goa. Several of the trees which bear the name cedar are species of Juniper (q.v.), among which are the Virginian Cedar, or Red Cedar of North America, and the Bermuda Cedar-which yield the cedar-wood used for pencils, -the Spanish Cedar of the south of Europe, &c. The name cedar is even given to trees which have no resemblance to the true cedars except in the resinous quality of the wood; thus the Cedar-wood of Guiana is produced by Icica altissima, a tree of the natural order Amyridaceæ (q.v.); the cedar of the West Indies (see next article) belongs to the natural order Cedrelacea; and the name Bastard Cedar is given in India to a tree of the natural order Byttneriaceæ (q.v.).

Cedar, BARBADOES, is strictly speaking Juniperus barbadensis; but a more important tree is that called Bastard Barbadoes Cedar (Cedrela odorata), a tree of the order Cedrelaceæ (q.v.). Its wood has an agreeable fragrance, and being soft and light, it is used for canoes and for shingles. Havannah cigar-boxes are very generally made of it, and in France it is used in making black-lead pencils.

Cedar-bergen, a mountain-range in Cape Colony, stretches north and south on the east side of Olifant River Valley, in Clanwilliam division, and has plantations of Cape cedar (Widdringtonia jumperoides), which are now, however, being fast destroyed. This is the only locality where this species is found. Sneeuwkop (6335 feet) is the highest point of the range.

Cedar Bird. See WAXWING,

CEILING

Cedar Creek is a river of Virginia, U.S., which gives name to a battle fought 19th October 1862, when the Federals under Sheridan defeated the Confederates under Early.

Cedar Rapids, a town of Linn county, Iowa, on the Red Cedar River, 79 miles SW. of Dubuque. large flour-mills, carriage and machine works, and It is an important railway centre, and has several breweries. Pop. (1860) 1830; (1890) 18,020.

Cedilla (Sp., Fr. cédille, It. zediglia; from zeta, the Greek name for z, because it has taken the place of z in such words as leczon, mod. leçon, a mark placed under the letter e (g), especially in French, where it is desired to give c the sound of s before the vowels a, o, u.

Cedrate. See CITRON.

Cedrelaceæ, a sub-order of Meliaceæ (q.v.), all tropical or subtropical trees or shrubs, with pinnate leaves, mostly valuable for their timber-e.g. mahogany, satin-wood, toon, Barbadoes cedar, the yellow-wood of New South Wales, &c. The barks of some species are febrifugal. See MAHOGANY, CEDAR (BARBADOES), &c.

Cefalù, a town of Sicily, on the north coast, 40 miles ESE. of Palermo. It is situated at the

foot of a lofty promontory (1235 feet), with old Greek and Saracenic remains. It has a cathedral, a port, and 12,714 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in marble-quarrying and fishing,

Ceglie, a town in Southern Italy, 21 miles NE. of Taranto. It has a trade in grain, oil, and fruit. Pop. 13,865.

Ceiling (Fr. ciel; Lat. cœlum, 'heaven). This term seems to have been suggested by the use of arched coverings for churches, and even for rooms, which prevailed in the middle ages, and were frequently painted blue and decorated with stars. Arched ceilings among the Romans were known by the name of camera, and were formed by semicircular beams of wood, at small distances from each other, over which was placed a coating of lath and plaster. But the ceilings most commonly in use amongst the Romans were flat, the beams, as in modern times, having been at first visible, and afterwards covered with planks and plaster. Sometimes hollow spaces were left between the beams, which were frequently covered with gold and ivory, or paintings or patera-large flowers

such, for instance, as are used in the panels of the vault of the Pantheon. The oldest flat ceiling in existence is believed to be that of Peterborough Cathedral. Like that at St Albans Abbey, it is made of wood. Ceilings of churches in the middle ages were generally painted and gilded in the most brilliant manner; and many existing ceilings still exhibit the traces of early decoration of this kind. In French churches the ceilings are generally vaulted, but in England they are more The older ceilings generally usually of wood. follow the line of the timbers of the roof, which, in the Early English and Decorated, are often arranged so as to give the shape of a barrel vault. In ceilings of this description there seldom are many ribs, often only a single one along the top. sists of a series of flat surfaces or cants, formed on In the Perpendicular style, the ceiling often conthe timbers of the roof. Though sometimes altogether destitute of ornament, they are more fre quently enriched with ribs, dividing them into square panels, with Bosses (q.v.) or flowers at the intersections. Wooden ceilings are sometimes formed in imitation of stone-groining, with ribs and bosses, examples of which will be found at York, Winchester, and Lincoln. In the Elizabethan age ceilings were generally of plaster, but they were ornamented with ribs having bosses or

CELAKOVSKY

al pendants at the intersections. It is not Lunal for the ceiling immediately over the altar, er the roodloft, to be richly ornamented, whilst the rest is plain. See ROOF.

Celakovsky, (1) FRANZ LADISLAUS, Bohemian pet, born in Strakonitz, 7th March 1799, died at Frame, professor of Slav Philosophy, 5th August 12 His principal works are Echoes of Russian Ehemian Folk-songs (1833-40), and a cycle of songs and didactic and political poems (1840). He also translated the works of Herder, Goethe, and Scott. (2) LADISLAUS, botanist, born in

P. 29th November 1834, was appointed professor of Botany there in 1880. Besides several nraphs on particular genera, he has published Aral book on the Bohemian flora (3 parts, 17-75 and an elucidation of the Darwinian theory. Celandine is the popular name (and corrupte of Chelidonium majus, a perennial papavera

Celandine (Chelidonium majus):
a, a flower.

een herb, which, although not
Britain, is doubtfully indigenous.

uncommon in Its pretty foliage and umbels of small yellow flowers, which bloom from May to August, might alone attract attention, but its ancient repute among herbalists is due to its yellow milky juice, which is very acrid and poisonous. Ex-| ternally it was applied to warts and ulcers, and internally administered, it was supposed to be a specific for jaundice, apparently on no better warrant, however, than that drawn from it colour by the doctrine of signatures.' Its old Esh name Swallow-wort, which appears to be alt a translation of the botanical one, seems Sounded on a supposed association between the beginning and ending of its flowering time and the arrival and departure of the swallows.-It is, however, the LESSER CELANDINE which is more familiar to general readers, at least since Wordsworth devoted no fewer than three poems to its honour. This is Ranunculus Ficaria, also known a the common fig-wort or pile-wort, a quite unre

Lesser Celandine (Rarunculus Ficaria).

lated ranunculaceous plant, which grows in abundant patches in fields and coppices, and brightens them in early spring with its plentiful golden flowers. Its tuberous roots and swollen separable buds give it additional botanical interest, while it is also noteworthy that these results of peculiarly vegetative habit are associated with a frequent imperfect maturity of the pollen. See REPRODUCTION.

Celano, LAKE OF. See FUCINO, LAKE OF.
Celastraceæ. See SPINDLE-TREE.

juato, on the Rio Laja, about 150 miles by rail Celaya, a town in the Mexican state of Guanahandsome churches, and manufactures of cotton NW. of the city of Mexico, has several fine plazas, and woollen cloths and saddlery. Pop. (1877), with district, 28,336. The burning of its bull-ring, on Easter Sunday 1888, caused considerable loss of life.

Cele'bes (in England usually pronounced Celebes), the third largest and the central island of the Eastern Archipelago, from 1° 45′ N. to 5° 37' S. lat., and from 118 49' to 125° 5' E. long. ; about 800 miles long by 200 broad; total area estimated at 76,260 sq. m. It is practically a Dutch possession, though there are numerous small native states. In configuration, it consists of a central nucleus whence radiate four long mountainous limbs, respectively E., NE., SE., and S., inclosing the three gulfs of Gorontalo, running in nearly 200 miles, Tolo 150 miles, and Boni about 200 miles. The gulfs, as also the north and west coasts, are studded with islands, rocks and shoals, and larger outlying islands. Of the central nucleus and the two inner limbs little is known. The east end of the eastern peninsula (north end of island), Minahassa district, is subject to earthquakes, and contains 11 volcanoes, some of them active, such as Mount Sapoetan (5938 feet), and, farther east, Mount Klabat (6559 feet), which has now, however, long been quiescent, besides numerous hot springs and sulphur lakes. The mountains of the south peninsula, essentially a limestone formation, seldom rise above 2000 feet. In the extreme south, how ever, are Maros (4225 feet) and Bonthain (9994 feet). The uplands of the south peninsula are well wooded, but its vegetation is much less luxuriant than that of the east peninsula. Between the hills and coast of the south peninsula are extensive grassy plains, affording pasture for large herds of cattle, and for the horses for which the district is famous.

Celebes is rich in lakes, among them, Passo, in the central nucleus, 35 miles by 25 miles, and Tondano, nearly 2000 feet above the sea. There are numerous streams, but Celebes, no part of which is more than 50 miles from the sea, offers no space for the formation of large rivers. The Sadang, rising near lake Passo, flows due south for nearly 120 miles.

Thanks to the elevation of the land and its seaexposure, Celebes enjoys a comparatively cool and healthy climate. The vegetation includes rice, maize, coffee, sugar, tobacco, indigo, areca, betel, pepper, clove and nutmeg growing wild; the tree yielding macassar oil, oak, teak, cedar, ebony, sandalwood, bamboos; also the upas. Minahassa, the most highly cultivated district, 60 by 20 miles, has coffee plantations, producing coffee of a remarkably fine flavour, entirely in the hands of the government, and where alone the culture system' has been applied in its integrity since 1822. Many animals, birds, and insects are wholly peculiar to Celebes-a tailless baboon, two kinds of cuscus, the babiroussa, and Sapi-utan, three kinds of starlings, two magpies, &c. Gold is obtained from surface washings, principally in Minahassa and Gorontalo districts; iron in the districts bordering the Gulf